N       '^  • 


JOHNA.SEAVERNS 


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Webster  Famayuorary^ve^^j^^ 
ciminss  school  Of  V«6«fMec8ciRe  at 

Tufts  University  ^^^^ 

200  Westboro  Road         -f^ 
North  Grafton,  MA  0-1538 


«M^ 


THE 


DOMESTIC  AISriMALS 


EMBRACING 


I.  The    Horse.— TO    BEEED,    BREAK,    FEED,    MANAGE,    AND    CURE 

II.  Cattle.— THE  YAEIOUS  BREEDS,  AND  HOW  TO  MANAGE  THEJL 

III.   Sheep.— THEIR    BREEDS,    MANAGEMENT,    DISEASES,    ETC. 

IV.    The    Pig.— TO    BEEED,    FEED,    CUT    UP,    AND    CURE. 

V.  Poultry.— THE  DIFFERENT  KINDS,  AND  TREATMENT 

VI.    Bees.— THEIR     HABITS,     MANAGEMENT,     ETC. 


PROM   THE   LATEST   AND   BEST  AUTHORITIES, 


ILLUSTRATED. 


EDITED     BY     IC.     G^.     STORIiE 


AUBURN,    N.  Y.: 
THE    AUBURN    PUBLISHING    COMPANY, 

E.    G.    STOEKE,  PUBLISHING    AGENT. 

1860. 


Entered  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1S59, 

BY    WILLIS    W,    SITTSEK, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Northern  District  of  New  York. 


C.  A.  AI.VOKD.  STritEOTYPER  AND  I'KIXTEK.  M  1«'  YOEK. 


INDEX  TO  THE  DOMESTIC  ANIMAIS. 


A. 

PAGE 

Arabian 13 

Alderney  cattle 103 

Ayrshire 99 

Angus  cattle 118 

Abortion 164 

B. 

Bacon,  to  cure 233 

"      Wiltshire 235 

Barley  for  the  horse 40 

Bantam  fowls 252 

Bees,  classes  of. 281 

"    their  wonderful  instincts 282 

"    advantages  of  keeping 2S3 

"    their  management 2S3 

"  "  in  spring 283 

"  "  in  winter 292 

"    transporting 295 

"    to  stupefy 296 

"    driving 298 

"    how  to  feed 284 

"    fall  feeding  of. 291 

"    composition  of  food  for ».  285 

"    care  in  swarming 286 

"    hives  and  boxes  for 292-305 

"    enemies  of 293 

Bee,  the  queen,  drone  and  working  . . .  281,  282 

''    flowers. 294 

"    feeder 284 

"    dress 289 

Bots 90 

Butter,  making 137 

"       Orange  county 143 

"       premium 142 

Breeding  the  horse 19 

Breaking        "        22 

Breeding-mares,  care  of 21 

Backing  the  horse 23 

Bitting  "        25 

Blinkers  or  blinders  for  the  horse 34 

Bull,  the,  described 123 

Bakewell  sheep 174 

Berkshire  hog 203 

C. 

Cleveland  bay 17 

Cruiser,  how  subdued !  27 

Carrots,  for  the  horse 41 

Congestion 79 

Choking .'.;..■;  81 

Colic,  spasmodic 81 


PAGE 

Catarrh 82 

Cheshire  cattle , 108 

Cow,  description  of  a  good 124 

"    profits  of 152 

"    spaying  of,  its  advantages,  etc 156 

Calves,  to  rear 125 

"      diseases  of 166 

Oftlving 163 

Cheese,  making 14T 

Churn 139 

Cud,  loss  of. 166 

Cochin  China  fowls 246 

Cattle,  their  breeds,  otc 97 

"      their  value 97 

"      dairy  breeds  of. 97 

"      Ayrshire 99 

"      AKlerncy 103 

"      Yorkshire 105 

"      Cheshire 103 

•'      Dorsetshire 108 

"      Kerry 108 

"      Durham Ill 

"      Hereford 113 

"      West  Highland  Scot 114 

"      Devon 116 

"      Galloway 118 

"      Angus 118 

"      Leicestershire 107 

"      breeding 118 

"      rearing 126 

"      feeding 128 

"      barn 135 

"      diseases  of,  etc 162 

"      to  estimate  live  weight  of 241 

"      chokingof. 163 

"      cream-pot  breed 240 

Cotswold  sheep 179 

Cheviot  sheep 179 

Chinese  hog 207 

D. 

Dorsetshire  cattle 108 

Dairy  breeds  of  cattle 97 

Dairy-house   137 

Durham  cattle Ill 

Devon  cattle 116 

Dorking  fowl 250 

Duck,  domestic 262 

E. 

Exercise  of  the  horsp 46 

Essex  hog 206 

Eggs,  to  ship 277 


IKDEX    TO    THE    DOr^IESTlC    ANFMAXS. 


F. 

PAGE 

Fat-prodncing  breeds  of  cattle 1 08 

Food  of  horses ^^ 

'•     relative  value  of.  40 

"      its  ettect  on  offspring 42 

"      solid,  for  calves 128 

Feeding  cattle   128 

Food  sliould  bo  cooked i:« 

Food,  kinds  of,  for  cattle l:?2 

Food  as  affecting  milk 1"^ 

Founder ^6 

Founder,  chronic ^6 

Fel.m n« 

Foul  in  the  foot 165 

Fowls,  Malay 245 

"      Cochin  China 246 

"     Spanish 247 

"      r.dand 248 

"      Hanihurg 249 

"     Dorking 250 

"     Sussex  ■ 251 

"     game    251 

"     Bantam 252 

"           '■     game 25:3 

"     Guinea 259 

"     pea 261 

"     diseases  of 273-276 

to  caponize 272 

G. 

Grooming 45 

Glanders ^4 

Galloway  cattle 1 1 8 

Gloucestershire  hog 2i>5 

Game  fowl 251 

Guinea-fowl 259 

Goose,  domestic 264 

Goose,  wild 268 

Goose,  Canada 268 

II. 

Hams,  "Westphalia 2^5 

Hams  to  cure 233 

Horse,  character  of, 11 

"     breeds  of,  in  the  United  States 11 

"     race 11 

"     Arabian 13 

"      Canadian 14 

"     Norman 14 

"      Morgnu 16 

"     Cleveland  bay 17 

'•      dray 17 

"     trotti  ng 18 

"     to  breed 19 

"     to  break 22 

"     Tiding  the 23 

"     taming,  the  Rarey  system 26-36 

"     stable,  management  of  the 86 

Horses,  food  of.   39 

Horses,  exercise  of 46 

Horses' feet,  to  manage 47 

Horse,  to  shoe     43 

Horse-shoes,  different  kinds  of   50-59 

Horse,  fallen,  to  manage   59 

•'     vices  and  dnngerous  habits  of 59-69 

"     soundness  of 69 

his  purchase  and  sale 69-79 

"     diseases  of,  etc 79-94 

"     distemper   87 

"     medicine  for 93 

Hereford  breed  of  cattle   ...       .  113 

Heifer,  age  of,  for  breeding 125 

Hoven  or  "  over  full" 16;3 

Hives  and  ho.ves  for  bees . . . .... '. . . . . .  . . '. .  305 

Hog,  domestic 203 

"    Berksliire 203 

"     llampshiro   !!.............*  205 

"    Yorkshire  205 

"    Herefordshire '.'. 205 


TAGS 

Hog,  Gloucestcrsbi re 'Mb 

"•  Norlliamptunchire 205 

"  Norfolk  .    206 

"  LeicoKtershirc 206 

"  Lincoln-hire 2iMj 

»  Essex 206 

"  Sussex   2(t7 

"  Chinese 207 

"  Suffolk 207 

"  to  choose  thc> 207 

"  house 210 

"  breeding 212 

"  feeding 212 

"         *'      chemistry  of 220 

"  to  castrate 215 

"  to  spay 215 

"  torinc 215 

"  his  diseases 222-230 

"  medicines  for 230 

"  to  slaughter 232 

"  to  cut  lip 232-237 

Hamburg  fowls -49 

I. 

Inflammation 80- 

"  of  the  lungs.. 82 

"  of  the  brain 85 

K. 

Kerry  cattle 108 

li. 

Leicestershire  cattle lOT 

Lactometer 152 

Lambs,  care  of. 184 

"        substitute 186 

twin 187 

"        castration  of 188 

docking  of 190. 

spaying  of 191 

Lincolnshire  hog 206 

Leicestershire  hog 206 

Milking 137 

Milk-fever 165 

Merino  sheep,  American 171 

Merino  sheep,  Saxon 173 

Malay  fowls 245 

N. 

Northamptonshire  hog 205 

Norfolk  hog 206 

O. 

Ox  described 124 

P. 

Potatoes  for  the  horse 41 

Poll-evil 88 

V\'j.  to  choose 207 

Pork,  to  cure  231-236 

Poultry,  domestic     245 

to  feed 269 

"       houses,  etc 270 

"        to  caponize 272 

«       to  ship 2:6 

"        importance  of  keeping 215 

"        its  varieties 245 

Poland  fowls 243 

Pea-fowl 261 

R. 

Reproduction  applied  to  cattle 125 

Rearing  calves 126 

Red  water 165 


INDEX   TO   THE   DOlilESTIC   ANIMALS. 


S. 

PAGE 

Stable  manasrement 36 

biable,  ventilation  of  the oi 

"      cleanliness  of  the ob 

"      rtoor 3S 

Shoeing  the  horse *S 

Slioes,  how  to  put  on 49 

Shoes,  different  kinds  of. o^-^J 

Spavin fi 

Stiansrles =>< 

Spaving  cows ]-^^ 

"         "    its  advantages J-Jo 

"  "    how  done 159 

"         "    care  after  operation 1 61 

Stock,  number  to  be  kept 238 

Spanish  fowls 247 

Sheep ]l\ 

"    native ^ '  j 

"     American  merino 1^1 

'•    Saxon  merinoes 173 

"    Bakewell 174 

"    South-Down lil; 

"    Cotswold 1 '9 

"    Cheviot ...•■•  1J9 

"    comparative  value  of  different  breeds  l&O 
"    their  general  management l&S 


PAGB 

Sheep,  summer  management 188 

"    care  in  handling  of 183 

"    washing; 192 

"    shearing 192 

"    winter  management  of i"^ 

"    winter  food  of 193 

"    medicines  for 193 

Swine 203 

Sussex  hog 2()T 

Sullblk 


2^7 


Turnips,  Swedes,  for  horses 41 

Table  of  medicines  for  the  horse 92 

Turkey,  domestic 253 

Turkey,  wild 25o 

"Worms  in  horses 81 

Wind-galls,   »' 

Wheatraeal  porridge  for  calves !•'' 

Y. 

Yorkshire  cattle 1^5 

Yellows,  or  jaundice 166 

Yorkshire  hog 205 


33 


P  EE  F  A  C  E. 


The  immense  advantages  derived  from  tlie  subjugation  to 
our  use  of  tlie  Domestic  Animals  are  perhaps  not  fully  appre- 
ciated. Let  any  one  carefully  consider  the  valuable  services 
rendered  to  civilized  man  by  the  horse,  the  ox,  the  cow,  the 
sheep,  the  pig,  the  domestic  fowl,  and  the  honey  bee.  Let 
him  take  into  view  the  labor  they  perform,  the  food  and 
clothing,  the  comforts  and  conveniences  which  they  supply, 
and  he  will  at  once  see  the  importance  of  the  subjects  oi  this 
manual. 

On  each  of  these  subjects  carefully  arranged  treatises  are 
given,  showing  the  best  breeds  of  the  several  animals,  the  true 
methods  of  breeding,  feeding,  breaking,  working,  fattening, 
etc.,  the  various  diseases  to  which  they  are  subject,  and  their 
remedies  and  treatment.  The  matter  is  derived  from  varied 
and  reliable  sources,  from  the  latest  and  best  European  and 
American  writers,  the  object  being  to  condense  the  most 
useful  practical  information  within  the  shortest  compass,  and 
to  so  arrange  it  that  any  thing  sought  for  could  at  once  be 
found. 

Every  owner  of  a  horse,  a  cow,  or  a  pig,  or  the  keeper  of 


8  PREFACE. 

bees  or  of  poultry,  will  find  in  this  work  hints  and  instruction 
of  the  most  valuable  kind,  and  which,  if  properly  observed, 
will  save  to  him  in  a  single  year  many  times  the  cost  of  this 
volume,  in  the  economy  of  feeding,  and  in  the  increased  value 
to  him  of  the  products  of  the  animals  kept. 

It  is  intended  to  be  a  hand-book,  in  which  can  at  any  time 
be  found  the  practical  directions  of  men  of  the  largest  expe- 
rience and  of  the  closest  observation  in  its  several  departments. 
Such  a  work  it  is  believed  cannot  fail  of  being  equally  accept- 
able and  useful  to  a  large  class  of  readers  in  every  section  of 
the  country. 


THE  HOESE: 

HOW  TO  BREED,  BREAK,  FEED,  AND  MANAGE, 
AND  HOW  TO  TREAT  HIS  DISEASES; 


TOGETHER   WITH 


THE   ART    OE   TAMING 


AS   PRACTICED   BY 


WILLIAM    AND    JOHN    S.    EAEEY. 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


THE    MORI^E. 


THE  CHARACTER  OF  THE  HORSE.— The  borse  is  now  one  of  the  most 
universally  distributed  animals,  and  everywhere  he  is  recognized  as  the 
most  useful  amongst  the  quadruped  servants  of  man,  yielding  in  intelli- 
gence to  the  dog  alone,  and  perhaps  not  to  him;  for  in  those  countries, 
— some  portions  of  Arabia  for  instance — in  which  he  is  admitted  to  the 
full  and  unrestricted  companionship  of  man,  sharing  his  food  with  the 
family  of  his  master,  and,  like  him,  a  dweller  in  the  tent,  his  sagacity 
far  surpasses  that  of  our  stable-reared  horses,  however  affectionately  they 
may  be  treated.  In  the  early  ages  of  the  world  the  horse  seems  to 
have  been  devoted  to  the  purposes  of  war  or  pleasure,  whilst  the  ox 
was  the  agricultural  drudge.  But  the  beauty,  strength,  and  tractability 
of  the  horse  have  now  connected  him,  directly  or  indirectly,  with  almost 
all  the  purposes  of  life.  If  he  differ  in  different  countries  in  form  and 
size,  it  is  from  the  influence  of  climate,  food,  and  cultivation  ;  but  other- 
wise, from  the  war-horse,  as  he  is  depicted  in  the  sculptures  of  ancient 
temples,  to  the  stately  charger  of  llolstein  and  of  Spain,  or  from  the 
fleet  and  beautiful  Arabian  to  the  diminutive  Shetlander,  there  is  a 
similarity  of  form  and  character  which  clearly  mark  a  common  origin. 

PRINCIPAL  BREEDS  m  THE  UNITED  STATES.— The  principal  breeds 
now  common  to  this  country  are  the  common  horse,  descended  from 
those  brought  in  by  the  early  colonists,  and  variously  mixed  with  va- 
rieties subsequently  introduced;  the  thorough-hred.,  or  race-horse;  the 
Arabian,  the  Canadian,  the  JVortnan,  the  Cleveland  hay,  the  dray,  and 
the  American  trotting-horse.  Of  the  common  horse^  no  specific  descrip- 
tion can  be  given,  as  he  is  a  compound  of  many  races  variously  and  in- 
congruously mixed. 

The  Race-Horse. — The  English  race-horse  is  undoubtedly  the  finest  ani- 
mal of  his  species  in  the  world.  In  swiftness  and  energy  he  surpasses 
even  his  Arabian  progenitor,  though  on  the  burning  sands  of  the  desert, 
to  which  not  being  acclimatized,  he  might  not  be  equal  in  point  of  en- 
durance. He  is  always  distinguished  by  the  beautiful  head  of  the  class 
from  which  his  ancestors  sprung;  this  being  as  finely  set  on  a  neck  of 
faultless  contour.  His  oblique  shoulders  give  as  good  earnest  of  strength 
as  do  his  well-formed  hind-legs  of  speed.  By  the  sculptor,  perhaps,  the 
legs  from  the  knee  downward  might  be  pronounced  unfit  for  the  heau 
ideal  of  a  perfect  animal,  yet  this,  though  admitted  by  judges  to  be 
sometimes  the  case,  is,  after  all,  a  matter  of  little  consequence.  Certain 
it  is,  that  whenever  the  English  race-horse  has  contended  on  fairground 


12 


DOAIESTTC    ANIMALS. 


FLYING   CH1IJ>EES. 


witli  the  finest  Arabian  breeds,  he  has  invariably  come  off  conqueror, 
even  though  he  may  be  by  no  means  the  finest  specimen  of  his  class. 

The  racer,  however,  with  the  most  beautiful  form,  is  occasionally  a 
sorry  animal.  There  is  sometimes  a  want  of  energy  in  an  apparently 
faultless  shape  for  which  there  is  no  accounting;  but  there  are  two 
points  among  those  just  enumerated  which  will  rarely  or  never  deceive, 
a  well-placed  shoulder  and  a  well-bent  hinder  leg. 

The  Darley  Arabian  was  the  parent  of  our  best  racing  stock.  He 
was  purchased  by  Mr.  Darley's  brother  at  Aleppo,  and  was  bred  in  the 
neighboring  desert  of  Palmyra. 

The  immediate  descendants  of  this  invaluable  horse  were  the  Devon- 
shire, or  Flying  Childers;  the  Bleeding,  or  Bartlett's  Childers,  who  was 
never  trained;  Almanzor  and  others. 

The  two  Childers  were  the  means  through  which  the  blood  and  fame 
of  their  sire  were  widely  circulated,  and  from  them  descended  another 
Childers,  Blaze,  Snap,  Sampson,  Eclipse,  and  a  host  of  excellent  horses. 

The  Devonshire,  or  Flying  Childers,  so  called  from  the  name  of  his 
breeder,  Mr.  Childers,  of  Carr  House,  and  the  sale  of  him  to  the  Duke 
of  Devonshire,  was  the  fleetest  horse  of  his  day.  He  was  at  first  trained 
as  a  hunter,  but  the  superior  speed  and  courage  wdiich  he  discovered 
caused  him  to  be  soon  transferred  to  the  turf.  Common  report  affirms 
that  he  could  run  a  mile  in  a  minute,  but  there  is  no  authentic  record 
of  this.  Childers  ran  over  the  round  course  at  Newmarket  (three  miles 
six  furlongs  and  ninety-three  yards)  in  six  minutes  and  forty  seconds; 
and  the  Beacon  course  (four  miles  one  furlong  and  one  liundred  and 
thirty-eight  yards)  in  seven  minutes  and  thirty  seconds.  In  1772  a 
mile  was  run  by  Fi retail  in  one  minute  and  four  seconds. 

More  than  twenty  years  after  the  Darley  Arabian,  and  when  the  value 
of  the  Arabian  blood  was  fully  established.  Lord  Godolphin  possessed  a 
beautiful  but  singularly-shaped  horse,  which  he  called  an  Arabian,  but 
which  was  really  a  Barb.  His  crest,  lofty  and  arched  almost  to  a  fault, 
will  distinguish  him  from  every  other  horse. 


\ 


THE    HORSE.  13 

He  had  a  sinking  behind  his  shoulders  ahuost  as  peculiar,  and  a  cor- 
responding elevation  of  the  spine  toward  the  loins.  His  muzzle  was 
uncommonly  fine,  his  head  beautifully  set  on,  his  shoulders  capacious, 
and  his  quarters  well  spread  out.  He  w^as  picked  up  in  France,  where 
he  was  actually  employed  in  drawing  a  cart;  and  when  he  was  after- 
ward presented  to  Lord  Godolphin,  he  was  in  that  nobleman's  stud  a 
considerable  time  before  his  value  was  discovered.  It  was  not  until  the 
birth  of  Lath,  one  of  the  first  horses  of  that  period,  that  his  excellence 
began  to  be  appreciated.  He  was  then  styled  an  Arabian,  and  became, 
in  even  a  greater  degree  than  the  Darley,  the  founder  of  the  modern 
thorough-bred  horses.     He  died  in  1753,  at  the  age  of  twenty-nine. 

An  intimate  friendship  subsisted  between  him  and  a  cat,  which  either 
sat  on  his  back  when  he  was  in  the  stable,  or  nestled  as  closely  to  him 
as  she  could.  At  his  death  the  cat  refused  her  food  and  pined  aw^ay, 
and  soon  died.  Mr.  Holcroft  gives  a  similar  relation  of  the  attachment 
between  a  race-horse  and  a  cat,  which  the  courser  would  take  in  his 
mouth  and  place  in  his  manger  and  upon  his  back  without  hurting  her. 
Chillaby,  called  from  his  great  ferocity  the  mad  Arabian,  whom  one 
only  of  the  grooms  dared  to  approach,  and  who  savagely  tore  to  pieces 
the  image  of  a  man  that  was  purposely  placed  in  his  way,  had  his  pe- 
culiar attachment  to  a  lamb,  who  used  to  employ  himself  for  many  an 
hour  in  butting  away  the  flies  from  him. 

The  Arabian  Horse. — By  far  the  most  beautiful  variety  of  the  Arab 
horse  is  the  Barb,  as  he  is  called  from  his  having  been  brought  to  this 
country  from  Barbary,  as  vague  a  term  as  is  Arabia,  including  the  coun- 
try between  Tunis  and  Morocco.  The  Barb  is,  how^ever,  small,  rarely 
exceeding  fourteen  hands,  and  is  thus  cotisiderably  less  than  the  Bedouin 
horse  of  North  and  East  Arabia.  This  breed  of  horses  was  introduced 
long  ago  into  England;  the  celebrated  Godolphin  Arabian,  so  called,  was 
suppost.'d  to  be  a  Barb.  It  is  to  this  breed  that  Spanish  horses  owe  their 
fire  and  beauty,  and  most  of  the  best  English  race-horses  have  the 
blood  of  the  Barb  in  their  veins.  It  is,  however,  remarkable  that,  con- 
sidering the  lavish  expenditure  on  improving  the  breed  of  English  horses, 
no  attempts  have  been  made  to  procure  any  of  the  mares  of  the  highest 
Arabian  stock.  We  appear  to  have  placed  the  chief  dependence  on 
the  Arab  stallion,  though  it  is  well  known  to  Oriental  breeders  that  the 
mare  is  of  by  far  the  greater  importance.  Whoever  attempts  further  to 
infuse  Arab  blood  into  the  English  horse  should  go  to  Muscat  or  its 
vicinity  for  his  stock ;  and  not,  as  is  frequently  done,  to  Egypt  or  the 
Barbary  coast,  where  the  horses  are,  for  the  most  part,  small. 

The  Arabian  horse  would  not  be  acknowledged  by  every  judge  to  ^ 
possess  a  perfect  form  ;  his  head,  however,  is  inimitable.     The  broad-  . 
ness  and  squareness  of  the  forehead,  the  shortness  and  fineness  of  the 
muzzle,  the  prominence  and  brilliancy  of  the  eye,  the  smallness  of  the 
ears,  and  the  beautiful  course  of  the  veins,  will  always  characterize  the 
head  of  the  zVrabian  horse. 

His  body  may  be  considered  as  too  light,  and  his  chest  as  too  nar- 
row ;  but  behind  the  arms  the  barrel  generally  swells  out,  and  leaves 
sufiicient  room  for  the  play  of  the  lungs. 

In  the  formation  of  the  shoulder,  next  to  that  of  the  head,  the  Arab 


14  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

is  superior  to  any  other  breed.  The  withers  are  high,  and  the  shoulder- 
biade  inclined  backward,  and  so  nicely  adjusted  that  in  descending  a  hill 
the  point  or  edge  of  the  ham  never  ruffles  the  skin.  He  may  not  be 
thought  sufficiently  high ;  he  seldom  stands  more  than  fourteen  hands 
two  inches.  The  fineness  of  his  legs,  and  the  oblique  position  of  his  pas- 
terns, may  be  supposed  to  lessen  his  strength;  but  the  leg,  although 
small,  is  flat  and  wiry;  anatomists  know  that  the  bone  has  no  common 
density,  and  the  startling  muscles  of  the  fore-arm  and  the  thigh  indi- 
cate that  he  is  fully  capable  of  accomplishing  many  of  the  feats  which 
are  recorded  of  him.  The  Arab  horse  is  as  celebrated  for  his  docility 
and  good  temper  as  for  his  speed  and  courage. 

The  kindness  with  which  he  is  treated  from  a  foal,  gives  him  an  afiec- 
tion  for  his  master,  a  wish  to  please,  a  pride  in  exerting  every  energy 
in  obedience  to  his  commands,  and,  consequently,  an  apparent  sagacity 
which  is  seldom  seen  in  other  breeds.  The  mare  and  her  foal  inhabit 
the  same  tent  with  the  Bedouin  and  his  children.  The  neck  of  the 
mare  is  often  the  pillow  of  the  rider,  and,  more  frequently,  of  the 
children,  who  are  rolling  about  upon  her  and  the  foal ;  yet  no  accident 
ever  occurs,  and  the  animal  acquires  that  friendship  and  love  for  man 
which  occasional  ill-treatment  will  not  cause  him  for  a  moment  to  forget. 

When  the  Arab  falls  from  his  mare,  and  is  unable  to  rise,  she  will 
immediately  stand  still,  and  neigh  until  assistance  arrives.  If  he  lies 
down  to  sleep,  as  fatigue  sometimes  compels  him,  in  the  midst  of  the 
desert,  she  stands  watchful  over  him,  and  neighs  and  rouses  him  if 
either  man  or  beast  approaches.  An  old  Arab  had  a  valuable  mare 
that  had  carried  him  for  fifteen  years  in  many  a  hard-fought  battle,  and 
many  a  rapid  weary  march ;  at  length,  eighty  years  old,  and  unable 
longer  to  ride  her,  he  gave  her,  and  a  cimeter  that  had  been  his  father's, 
to  his  eldest  son,  and  told  him  to  appreciate  their  value,  and  never  lie 
down  to  rest  until  he  had  rubbed  them  both  as  bright  as  a  looking-glass. 
In  the  first  skirmish  in  which  the  young  man  was  engaged  he  was  killed, 
and  the  mare  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  When  the  news 
reached  the  old  man,  he  exclaimed  that  "  life  was  no  longer  worth  pre- 
serving, for  he  had  lost  both  his  son  and  his  mare,  and  he  grieved  for 
one  as  much  as  the  other ;"  and  he  immediately  sickened  and  died. 

The  Canadian  Horse. — This  variety  of  the  horse  is  chiefly  found  in 
Canada,  though  they  have  been  introduced,  in  considerable  numbers, 
into  the  United  States.  They  are  chiefly  of  French  descent,  though 
many  of  the  larger  and  more  valuable  of  them  are  the  produce  of 
crosses  with  various  English  breeds.  They  are  a  very  hardy  race,  easily 
kept,  long-lived,  and  the  larger  varieties  excellent  farm  and  draught 
horses.  Not  as  large  as  the  Norman  horse,  they  still  exhibit  many  of 
his  characteristics.  Many  stallions  have  been  brought  into  the  states, 
and  crossed  with  our  common  breeds.  The  result  has  tended  to  give 
vigor  and  compactness  of  form  and  constitution,  and  a  continuance  of 
the  practice  is  suggested. 

Tlie  Norman  Horse, — This  is  a  hardy  and  very  valuable  breed  of  French 
horses  of  recent  introduction.     Mr.  Harris  thus  speaks  of  them  : 

"Those  who  are  acquainted  with  the  thorough-bred  Canadian  horse 
will  see  in  him  a  perfect  model,  on  a  small  scale,  of  the  Perchcron  horse. 


THE    IIOKSl 


15 


TUE   NOKMAN   HORSK. 


This  is  the  peculiar  breed  of  Normandy,  which  is  used  so  extensively 
throughout  the  northern  half  of  France  for  diligence  and  post  horses, 
and  from  the  best  French  authorities  I  could  command  (I  cannot  now 
quote  the  precise  authorities),  I  learned  that  they  were  produced  by  the 
cross  of  the  Andalusian  horse  upon  the  old  heavy  Norman  horse,  Avhose 
portrait  may  still  be  seen  as  a  war-horse  on  the  painted  windows  of  the 
cathedral  of  Rouen,  several  centuries  old.  At  the  time  of  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  Netherlands  by  the  Spaniards,  the  Andalusian  was  the  favor- 
ite stallion  of  the  north  of  Europe,  and  thus  a  stamp  of  the  true  Barb 
was  implanted,  which  remains  to  the  present  day.  If  you  will  allow 
me  to  digress  a  moment,  I  will  give  you  a  short  description  of  the  old 
Norman  draught-horse  on  which  the  cross  was  made.  They  average  full 
sixteen  hands  in  height,  with  head  short,  thick,  wide,  and  hollow  be- 
tween the  eyes;  jaws  heavy;  ears  short  and  pointed  well  forward ;  neck 
very  short  and  thick;  mane  heavy;  shoulder  well  inclined  backward; 
back  extremely  short;  rump  steep;  quarters  very  broad;  chest  deep 
and  wide ;  tendons  large ;  muscles  excessively  developed ;  legs  very 
short,  particularly  from  the  knee  and  hock  to  the  fetlock,  and  thence  to 
the  coronet,  which  is  covered  with  long  hair,  hiding  half  the  hoof;  much 
hair  on  the  legs." 

Mr.  Youatt,  in  speaking  of  th  >  French  horses,  says:  "The  best 
French  horses  are  bred  in  Limousin  and  Normandy.  From  the  former 
district  come  excellent  saddle-horses  and  hunters  ;  and  from  the  latter 
a  stronger  species,  for  the  road,  the  cavalry  or  the  carriage.  The  Nor- 
man horses  are  now  much  crossed  by  our  hunters,  and  occasionally  by 
the  thorough-bred ;  and  the  English  roadster  and  light  draught  horsc> 
has  not  suffered  by  a  mixture  with  the  Norman." 

In  his  remarks  on  the  coach-horse,  Mr.  Youatt  says  :  "  The  Normandy 
carriers  travel  with  a  team  of  four  horses,  and  from  fourteen  to  twenty- 
two  miles  in  a  day,  with  a  load  of  ninety  hundred  weio-ht." 


16 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


JUSTIN  MOEGAN. 


The  Committee  of  the  N.  Y.  State  Agricultural  Society,  "  on  stock 
owned  out  of  the  state,"  at  the  State  Fair  at  Auburn,  in  1846,  thus 
spoke  of  the  Morgans  : 

"Gifford  Morgan,  a  dark  chestnut  stallion,  fourteen  hands  and  three 
inches  high,  aged  twenty  years,  was  exhibited  by  F.  A.  Weir,  of  Wal- 
pole,  N,  H.  It  is- claimed  on  the  part  of  his  owner,  that  this  horse 
possesses  the  celebrated  'Morgan'  blood  in  greater  purity  than  any 
other  now  living.  'General  GifFord,' got  by  the  above-named  horse, 
was  exhibited  by  Mr.  C.  Blodget,  of  Clielsea,  Vt.  In  his  size,  figure, 
action,  and  color,  he  closely  resembles  his  sire.  Both  are  exceedingly 
compact  horses,  deep-chested  and  strong-backed,  with  fore-legs  set  wide 
apart,  and  carrying  their  heads  (v  dich  are  small,  with  fine,  well-set 
eyes)  high  and  gracefully,  without  a  oearing-rein.  Their  action  attracted 
the  marked  admiration  of  all.  This  breed  are  reputed  to  possess  great 
bottom  and  hardiness,  and  every  thing  about  the  two  presented,  goes  to 
prove  that  their  rieputation  in  this  particular  is  well  founded.  For 
light  carriage  or  buggy  horses,  it  would  be  difficult  to  equal  them,  and 
if  by  crossing  with  prime  large  mares,  of  any  breed,  size  could  be  ob- 
tained in  the  progeny,  without  losing  the  fire  and  action  of  the  Morgan, 
the  result  of  the  cross  would  be  a  carriage  of  very  superior  quality. 
Your  committee  are  not  aware  of  the  extent  or  result  of  such  crosses. 


THE   HOESE.  17 

in  the  region  where  the  Morgans  originated.  Unless  experience  has 
already  demonstrated  their  inutility,  we  could  recommend  to  our  horse- 
breeders  some  well-considered  experiments,  limited  at  first,  to  test  the 
feasibility  of  engrafting  the  Morgan  characteristics  on  a  lar2;er  horse." 
The  Cleveland  Bay. — This  horse  is  thus  described  by  Mr.^Youatt : 
"  The  produce  of  Cleveland  mares  is  a  coach-horse  of  high  repute, 
and  likely  to  possess  good  action.  His  points  are,  substance  well  placed, 
deep  and  w^ell-proportioned  body,  strong  and  clean  bone  under  the 
knee,  open,  sound,  aud  tough  feet,  with  fine  knee  action,  lifting  his  feet 
high.     The  full-sized  coach-horse  is  in  fact  an  overgrown  hunter. 

"  The  old  Cleveland  horse  is  almost  extinct,  and  his  place  supplied  in 
the  manner  just  described.  The  Sufl!"olk  Punch,  the  product  chiefly  of 
Sufiblk  and  some  of  the  neighbouring  districts,  is  regenerated,  but  is  a 
different  sort  of  animal  to  the  breed  of  olden  times.  He  usually  varied 
from  fifteen  to  sixteen  hands  in  height,  and  was  of  a  sorrel  color.  He 
was  large-headed,  low-shouldered,  broad  and  low  on  the  withers,  deep, 
and  yet  round-chested ;  long  in  the  back,  large  and  strong  in  the  quar- 
ters, round  in  the  legs,  and  strong  in  the  pasterns.  He  would  throw  his 
whole  weight  into  the  collar,  and  had  sufficient  hardihood  and  streno-th 
to  stand  a  long  day's  work.  The  pure  breed  has,  however,  passed  awav, 
and  is  succeeded  by  a  cross  between  the  half  or  three-parts  bred  York- 
shire with  the  old  Suffolk.  He  is  taller  than  the  former  horse,  some- 
what higher  and  firmer  about  the  shoulders,  with  sufficient  quickness  of 
action  and  honesty  to  exert  himself  to  the  utmost  at  a  dead  pull,  whilst 
the  proportion  of  the  withers  enables  him  to  throw  immense  w^eight 
into  the  collar.  The  encouragement  given  by  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England  for  horses  of  this  class  has  been  the  cause  of  con- 
siderable increase  in  their  numbers." 

Cleveland  Bays  have  been  introduced  into  this  country,  and  have 
spread  considerably.  They  are  very  large  horses ;  and,  for  their  size, 
are  symmetrical  in  form,  and  fair  in  action.  The  cross  with  our  com- 
mon mares  produces  an  excellent  farm  horse,  though  said  to  be  of 
sullen  temper. 

The  Dray-Horse. — Of  the  heavy  black  dray-horses,  but  few  have  been 
imported  into  this  country,  and  they  do  not  seem  likely  to  become 
favorites  here.     Mr.  Youatt  says  of  them  : 

"  The  heavy  black  horse  is  the  last  variety  it  may  be  necessary  to 
notice.  It  is  bred  chiefly  in  the  midland  counties,  from  Lincolnshire 
to  Staffordshire.  Many  are  bought  up  by  the  Surrey  and  Berkshire 
farmers  at  two  years  old, — and  being  worked  moderately  until  they  are 
four,  earning  their  keep  all  the  while,  they  are  then  sent  to  the  London 
market,  and  sold  at  a  profit  of  ten  or  twelve  per  cent. 

It  would  not  answer  the  breeder'' s  purpose  to  keep  them  until  they 
are  fit  for  town  work.  He  has  plenty  of  fillies  and  mares  on  his  farm 
for  every  purpose  that  he  can  require;  he  therefore  sells  them  to  a 
person  nearer  the  metropolis,  by  whom  they  are  gradually  trained  and 
prepared.  The  traveler  has  probably  wondered  to  see  four  of  these 
enormous  animals  in  a  line  before  a  plow,  on  no  very  lieavy  soil, 
and  where  two  lighter  horses  would  have  been  quite  sufficient.  The 
farmer  is  training  them  for  their  future  destiny  ;  and  he  does  right  in 


18  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

not  requiring  the  exertion  of  all  their  strength,  for  their  bones  are  not 
yet  perfectly  formed,  nor  their  joints  knit ;  and  were  he  to  urge  them 
too  severely,  he  would  probably  injure  and  deform  them.  By  the  gen- 
tle and  constant  exercise  of  the  plow,  he  is  preparing  them  for  that 
continued  and  equable  pull  at  the  collar,  which  is  afterward  so  neces- 
sary. These  horses  are  adapted  more  for  parade  and  show,  and  to 
gratify  the  ambition  which  one  brewer  has  to  outvie  his  neighbor,  than 
for  any  peculiar  utility.  They  are  certainly  noble-looking  animals,  with 
their  round,  fat  carcases,  and  their  sleek  coats,  and  the  evident  pride 
which  they  take  in  themselves ;  but  they  eat  a  great  deal  of  hay  and 
corn,  and  at  hard  and  long-continued  work  they  would  be  completely 
beaten  by  a  team  of  active  muscular  horses  an  inch  and  a  half  lower. 

The  only  plea  which  can  be  urged  in  their  favor,  beside  their  finb 
appearance,  is,  that  as  shaft-horses  over  the  badly-paved  streets  of  the 
metropolis,  and  with  the  immense  loads  they  often  have  behind  them, 
great  bulk  and  weight  are  necessary  to  stand  the  unavoidable  shaking 
and  battering.  Weight  must  be  opposed  to  weight,  or  the  horse  would 
sometimes  be  quite  thrown  off  his  legs.  A  large  heavy  horse  must  be 
in  the  shafts,  and  then  little  ones  before  him  would  not  look  well. 

The  Trotting-Horse. — The  relative  merits  of  the  English  and  American 
trotting-horse,  have  been  the  subjects  of  careful  discussion  by  compe- 
tent judges.  The  New  York  Spirit  of  the  Tiines,  one  of  the  best 
authorities  on  this  subject,  thus  canvasses  the  matter: 

"  Nimrod,  in  admitting  the  superiority  of  our  trotting-horses  to  the 
'English,' claims  that  the  English  approach  very  near  to  the  Americans. 
Possibly  the  characteristic  national  vanity  would  not  allow  him  to  make 
a  further  concession.  But  there  is  no  comparison  whatever  between 
the  trotting  horses  of  the  two  countries.  Mr.  Wheelan,  who  took 
Rattler  to  England,  last  season,  and  doubly  distanced,  with  ease,  every 
horse  that  started  against  him,  as  the  record  shows,  informs  us  that 
there  are  twenty  or  more  roadsters  in  common  use  in  this  citv,  that 
would  compete  successfully  with  the  fastest  trotters  on  the  English 
turf.  They  neither  understand  the  art  of  training,  driving,  nor  riding 
them.  For  example  :  some  few  years  since,  Alexander  was  purchased 
by  Messrs.  C.  and  B.  of  this  city,  for  a  friend  or  acquaintance,  in  Eng- 
land. Alexander  was  a  well  known  roadster  here,  and  was  purchased 
to  order  at  a  low  rate.  The  horse  was  sent  out  and  trials  made  of 
him ;  but  so  unsuccessful  were  they,  that  the  English  importers  consid- 
ered him  an  imposition.  Thus  the  matter  stood  for  a  year  or  more. 
When  Wheelan  arrived  in  England,  he  recognized  the  horse  and  learned 
the  particulars  of  his  purchase,  and  subsequent  trials  there.  By  his 
advice  the  horse  was  nominated  in  a  stake,  at  Manchester  we  believe, 
with  four  or  five  of  the  best  trotters  in  England,  Wheelan  agreeing  to 
train  and  ride  him.  AVhen  the  horses  came  upon  the  ground,  the  odds 
were  four  and  five  to  one,  against  Alexander,  who  won  by  nearly  a 
quarter  of  a  mile.  Wheelan  says  he  took  the  track  at  the  start,  and 
widened  the  gap  at  his  ease — that  near  the  finish,  being  surprised  that 
no  horse  was  near  him,  as  his  own  had  not  yet  made  a  stroke,  he  got 
frightened,  thinking  some  one  might  outbrush  him, — that  he  put  Alex- 
ander up  to  his  work,  and  finally  won  by  an  immense  way,  no  horse, 


THE   HORSE.  19 

literally,  getting  to  the  head  of  the  quarter  stretch,  as  he  came  out  at 
the  winning  stand!  The  importers  of  Alexander,  at  any  rate,  were  so 
delighted  at  his  performance,  that  they  presented  Wheelan  with  a  mag- 
nificent timing-watch,  and  other  valuable  presents,  and  sent  Messrs.  C. 
and  B.  a  superb  service  of  plate,  which  may,  at  any  time,  be  seen  at 
their  establishment,  in  Maiden  Lane." 

This  difference  between  English  and  American  trotters  is  clearly  at- 
tributable to  superior  training  and  jockeying.  We  have  in  this  country 
hundreds  of  Rareys,  who  can  teach  not  only  the  nobles  of  the  realm  but 
the  common  jockeys  also,  the  mysterious  arts  of  horse-training  and 
managing,  although  they  may  not  now  be  able  to  command  for  their 
services  quite  the  compensation  which  that  gentleman  received. 

BREEDJi\'G. — Breeders  of  all  kinds  of  animals  are  unanimous  in  their 
opinions  that  it  is  necessary  to  have  distinct  varieties,  usually  distin- 
guished as  thorough-bred,  for  the  propagation  of  the  species,  whether  it 
be  determined  to  carry  on  the  unblemished  pedigree,  or  to  cross  with 
other  breeds.  The  high  value  set  upon  the  short-horned  cattle,  is  esti- 
mated principally  by  the  purity  of  the  blood  ;  and  the  true  Southdown  or 
Leicester  sheep  by  a  similar  criterion. 

It  is  a  general  observation  with  those  who  have  devoted  attention  to 
the  subject,  that  horses  and  mares  require  much  time  after  they  have 
been  trained,  before  they  distinguish  themselves  as  the  progenitors  of 
first-rate  stock.  This  affords  another  argument  in  favor  of  early  train- 
ing. Both  with  mares  and  stallions  their  best  foals  have  often  not  come 
forth  till  they  were  advanced  in  years.  According  to  the  presumed  age 
of  the  Godolphin  Arabian,  he  was  thirteen  years  old  when  he  became 
the  sire  of  Regulus.  Paynator  and  Whalebone  were  each  of  them 
twenty  years  old  when  their  sons.  Dr.  Syntax  and  Sir  Hercules,  were 
foaled.  Potoooooooo,  Sultan,  Langar,  and  Venison,  were  each  of  them 
sixteen  years  old  when  they  became  the  sires  respectively  of  Waxy,  Bay 
Middieton,  Epirus  and  Kingston.  Melbourne  was  fifteen  when  he  begot 
West  Australian  ;  Hap-hazard  fourteen  when  he  was  the  sire  of  Filho  da 
Puta.  Orville  was  the  same  age  when  he  was  the  sire  of  Ebor,  and 
twenty  when  he  begot  the  still  more  celebrated  Emilius;  and  an  infinity 
of  similar  examples  may  be  added.  This  property  applies  more  gener- 
ally to  stallions  than  to  mares  :  for  it  is  sometimes  apparent,  that  their 
first  foals  are  vastly  superior  to  their  subsequent  produce.  This  was  the 
case  in  olden  times  with  the  dams  of  Mark  Antony,  Conductor,  Pyrrhus, 
and  Pantaloon  ;  and  more  recently  with  Sultan,  Touchstone,  Sir  Her- 
cules, and  Filho  da  Puta.  AVhether  the  subsequent  change  of  partners 
has  any  prejudicial  effect  on  the  future  progeny,  is  a  subject  worthy  the 
most  scrupulous  attention  of  breeders.  The  case  of  Penelope  is  in  favor 
of  the  assumption ;  for  the  superiority  of  her  first  seven  foals  by  Waxy, 
over  the  others  by  different  horses,  is  a  fact  which  cannot  be  disputed. 
It  is  curious  to  remark,  that  when  a  thorough-bred  mare  has  once  had 
foals  to  common  horses,  no  subsequent  foals  which  she  may  have  had 
by  thorough-bred  horses  have  ever  evinced  any  pretensions  to  racing 
qualities.  There  may  be  an  exception ;  but  I  believe  I  am  correct  in 
stating  that  there  is  not.  It  is  laid  down  as  a  principle,  "  That  when  a 
pure  animal,  of  any  breed,  has  once  been  pregnant  to  one  of  a  different 


20  DOMESTIC   A^'IMALS. 

breed,  she  is  herself  a  cross  ever  after ;  the  purity  of  her  blood  having 
been  lost  in  consequence  of  this  connection"  This  will  no  doubt  be 
received  by  many  persons  as  an  abstruse  hypothesis,  but  there  are  un- 
equivocal incidents  in  favor  of  it ;  and  that  valuable  monitor,  past  expe- 
rience, must  be  received  as  a  more  convincing  argument  than  the  opinion 
of  individuals,  on  subjects  which  are  hidden  from  our  understanding  by 
the  impenetrable  veil  which,  on  many  occasions,  enshrouds  the  secret 
mysteries  of  nature.  There  are  events  on  record  which  prove  this 
faculty,  although  they  do  not  enlighten  us  as  to  the  physical  influences 
which  control  it.  Sir  Gore  Ousely,  when  in  India,  purchased  an 
Arabian  mare,  which  during  several  seasons  would  not  breed,  and,  in 
consequence,  an  intercourse  with  a  zebra  was  resorted  to ',  she  produced 
an  animal  striped  like  its  male  parent.  The  first  object  being  accom- 
plished, that  of  causing  her  to  breed,  a  thorough-bred  horse  was  selected, 
but  the  produce  was  striped.  The  following  year  another  horse  was 
chosen,  yet  the  stripes,  although  less  distinct,  appeared  on  the  foal.  Mr. 
Blaine  relates  that  a  chestnut  mare  also  gave  birth  to  a  foal  by  a  quagga, 
and  that  the  mare  was  afterward  bred  from  by  an  Arabian  horse,  but  that 
the  progeny  exhibited  a  very  striking  resemblance  to  the  quagga. 

The  progeny  will,  as  a  rule,  inherit  the  general  or  mingled  qualities 
of  the  parents.  There  is  scarcely  a  disease  by  which  either  of  them  is 
aflfected,  that  the  foal  does  not  often  inherit  or  show  a  predisposition  to 
it.  Even  the  consequences  of  ill-usage  or  hard  work  will  descend  to 
the  progen3\  There  has  been  proof  upon  proof  that  blindness,  roaring, 
thick  wind,  broken  wind,  spavins,  curbs,  ringbones,  and  founder,  have 
been  bequeathed  to  their  offspring  both  by  the  sire  and  the  dam. 

Peculiarity  of  form  and  constitution  will  also  be  inherited.  This  is  a 
most  important  but  neglected  consideration;  for,  however  desirable  or 
even  perfect  may  have  been  the  conformation  of  the  sire,  every  good 
point  may  be  neutralized  or  destroyed  by  the  defective  structure  of  the 
mare.  The  essential  points  should  be  good  in  both  parents,  or  some 
minor  defect  in  either  be  met,  and  got  rid  of  by  excellence  in  that  par- 
ticular point  in  the  other.  The  unskillful  or  careless  breeder,  too  often 
so  badly  pairs  the  animals  that  the  good  points  of  each  are  almost  lost, 
the  defects  of  both  increased,  and  the  produce  is  far  inferior  to  both 
sire  and  dam. 

The  mare  is  sometimes  put  to  the  horse  at  too  early  an  age ;  or, 
what  is  of  more  frequent  occurrence,  the  mare  is  incapable  from  old  age. 
The  owner  is  unwilling  to  destroy  her,  and  determines  that  she  shall 
pay  for  her  keeping  by  bearing  him  a  foal.  What  is  the  consequence  ? 
The  foal  exhibits  an  unkindness  of  growth,  a  corresponding  weakness, 
and  there  is  scarcely  an  organ  that  possesses  its  natural  and  proper 
strength. 

That  the  constitution  and  power  of  endurance  of  the  horse  are  in  a 
great  measure  inherited,  no  sporting  man  ever  doubted.  The  qualities 
of  the  sire  or  the  dam  descend  from  generation  to  generation,  and  the 
excellences  or  defects  of  certain  horses  are  often  traced,  and  justly  so, 
to  some  peculiarity  in  a  far-distant  ancestor. 

It  may,  perhaps,  be  justly  affirmed,  that  there  is  more  difficulty  in 
selecting  a  good  mare  to  breed  from  than  a  good  horse,  because  she 


THE   HOKSE.  21 

should  possess  somewhat  opposite  qualities.  Her  carcass  should  be 
long,  in  order  to  give  room  for  the  growth  of  the  foetus  ;  and  yet  with 
this  there  should  be  compactness  of  form  and  shortness  of  leg.  What 
can  they  expect  whose  practice  it  is  to  purchase  worn-out,  spavined, 
foundered  mares,  about  whom  they  fancy  there  have  been  some  good 
points,  and  send  them  far  into  the  country  to  breed  from,  and,  with  all 
their  variety  of  shape,  to  be  covered  by  the  same  horse?  In  a  lottery 
like  this  there  may  be  now  and  then  a  prize,  but  there  must  be  many 
blanks. 

As  to  the  shape  of  the  stallion,  little,  satisfactory,  can  be  said.  It 
must  depend  on  that  of  the  mare,  and  the  kind  of  horse  wished  ^o  be 
bred  ;  but  if  there  is  one  point  absolutely  essential,  it  is  "compactness" 
— as  much  goodness  and  strength  as  possible  condensed  into  a  little 
space. 

Next  to  compactness,  the  inclination  of  the  shoulder  will  be  regarded. 
A  huge  stallion,  with  upright  shoulders,  never  got  a  capital  hunter  or 
hackney.  From  him  the  breeder  can  obtain  nothing  but  a  cart  or  dray 
horse,  and  that  perhaps  spoiled  by  the  opposite  form  of  the  mare.  On 
the  other  hand,  an  upright  shoulder  is  desirable,  if  not  absolutely  neces- 
sary, when  a  mere  slow  draught-horse  is  required. 

From  the  time  of  covering,  to  within  a  few  days  of  the  expected 
period  of  foaling,  the  cart-mare  may  be  kept  at  moderate  labor,  not  only- 
without  injury,  but  with  decided  advantage.  It  will  then  be  prudent  to 
release  her  from  work,  and  keep  her  near  home,  and  under  the  frequent 
inspection  of  some  careful  person. 

When  nearly  half  the  time  of  pregnancy  has  elapsed,  the  mare  should 
have  a  little  better  food.  She  should  be  allowed  one  or  two  feeds  of 
grain  in  the  day.  This  is  about  the  period  when  they  are  accustomed 
to  slink  their  foals,  or  when  abortion  occurs ;  the  eye  of  the  owner 
should,  therefore,  be  frequently  upon  them.  Good  feeding  and  moderate 
exercise  will  be  the  best  preventives  of  this  mishap.  The  mare  that  has 
once  aborted  is  liable  to  a  repetition  of  the  accident,  and  therefore  should 
never  be  suffered  to  be  with  other  mares  between  the  fourth  and  fifth 
months;  for  such  is  the  power  of  imagination  or  of  sympathy  in  the 
mare,  that  if  one  suffers  abortion,  others  in  the  same  pasture  will  too 
often  share  the  same  fate.  Farmers  wash,  and  paint,  and  tar  their 
stables,  to  prevent  some  supposed  infection — the  infection  lies  in  the 
imagination. 

The  thorough-bred  mare — the  stock  being  intended  for  sporting  pur- 
poses— should  be  kept  quiet,  and  apart  from  other  horses,  after  the 
first  four  or  five  months.  AVhen  the  period  of  parturition  is  drawing 
near,  she  should  be  watched  and  shut  up  during  the  night  in  a  safe 
yard  or  loose  box. 

If  the  mare,  whether  of  the  pure  or  common  breed,  be  thus  taken 
care  of,  and  be  in  good  health  while  in  foal,  little  danger  will  attend 
the  act  of  parturition.  If  there  is  false  presentation  of  the  foetus,  or 
difficulty  in  producing  it,  it  will  be  better  to  have  recourse  to  a  well- 
informed  practitioner,  than  to  injure  the  mother  by  the  violent  and  in- 
jurious attempts  that  are  often  made  to  relieve  her. 

The  parturition  being  over,  the  mare  should  be  turned  into  some 

.34 


22  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

well-sheltered  pasture,  with  a  hovel  or  shed  to  run  into  when  she 
pleases ;  and  if  she  has  foaled  early,  and  grass  is  scanty,  she  should 
have  a  couple  of  feeds  of  grain  daily.  The  breeder  may  depend  upon 
it,  that  nothing  is  gained  by  starving  the  mother  and  stinting  the  foal 
at  this  time.  It  is  the  most  important  period  of  the  life  of  the  horse ; 
and  if,  from  false  economy,  his  growth  is  arrested,  his  puny  form  and 
want  of  endurance  will  ever  afterward  testify  the  error  that  has  been 
committed.  The  grain  should  be  given  in  a  trough  on  the  ground,  that 
the  foal  may  partake  of  it  with  the  mother.  ^^  hen  the  new  grass  is 
plentiful,  the  quantity  of  corn  may  gradually  be  diminished. 

The  mare  will  usually  be  found  again  at  heat  at  or  before  the  expi- 
ratio^  of  a  month  from  the  time  of  foaling,  when,  if  she  is  principally 
kept  for  breeding  purposes,  she  may  be  put  again  to  the  horse.  At  the 
same  time,  also,  if  she  is  used  for  agricultural  purposes,  she  may  go 
again  to  work.  The  foal  is  at  first  shut  in  the  stable  during  the  hours 
of  work ;  but  as  soon  as  it  acquires  sufficient  strength  to  toddle  after 
the  mare,  and  especially  when  she  is  at  slow  work,  it  will  be  better  for 
the  foal  and  the  dam  that  they  should  be  together.  The  work  will  con- 
tribute to  the  health  of  the  mother ;  the  foal  will  more  frequently  draw 
the  milk,  and  thrive  better,  and  will  be  hardy  and  tractable,  and  grad- 
ually familiarized  with  the  objects  among  which  it  is  afterward  to  live. 
"While  the  mother,  however,  is  thus  worked,  she  and  the  foal  should  be 
well  fed ;  and  two  feeds  of  corn,  at  least,  should  be  added  to  the  green 
food  which  they  get  when  turned  out  after  their  work,  and  at  night. 

In  five  or  six  months,  according  to  the  growth  of  the  foal,  it  may  be 
weaned.  It  should  then  be  housed  for  three  weeks  or  a  month,  or  turn- 
ed into  some  distant  rick-yard.  There  can  be  no  better  place  for  the 
foal  than  the  latter,  as  aff"ording,  and  that  without  trouble,  both  food 
and  shelter.  The  mother  should  be  put  to  harder  work,  and  have  drier 
food.  One  or  two  urine-balls,  or  a  physic-ball,  will  be  useful,  if  the  milk 
should  be  troublesome  or  she  should  pine  after  her  foal. 

There  is  no  principle  of  greater  importance  than  the  liberal  feeding 
of  the  foal  during  the  whole  of  his  growth,  and  at  this  time  in  particu- 
lar. Bruised  oats  and  bran  should  form  a  considerable  part  of  his  daily 
provender.  The  farmer  may  be  assured  that  the  money  is  well  laid  out 
which  is  expended  on  the  liberal  nourishment  of  the  growing  colt ;  yet, 
while  he  is  well  fed,  he  should  not  be  rendered  delicate  by  excess  of 
care. 

A  racing  colt  is  often  stabled ;  but  one  that  is  destined  to  be  a 
hunter,  a  hackney,  or  an  agricultural  horse,  should  have  a  square  rick, 
under  the  leeward  side  of  which  he  may  shelter  himself;  or  a  hovel, 
into  which  he  may  run  at  night,  and  out  of  the  rain. 

BREAKL\G. — The  process  of  breaking-in  should  commence  from  the 
the  very  period  of  weaning.  The  foal  should  be  daily  handled,  partial- 
ly dressed,  accustomed  to  the  halter  when  led  about,  and  even  tied  up. 
The  tractability,  and  good  temper,  and  value  of  the  horse,  depend  a  great 
deal  more  upon  this  than  breeders  are  aware. 

Every  thing  should  be  done,  as  much  as  possible,  by  the  man  who 
feeds  the  colt,  and  whose  management  of  him  should  be  always  kind 
and  gentle.     There  is  no  fault  for  which  a  breeder  should  so  invariably 


THE   HORSE.  23 

discharge  his  servant  as  cruelty,  or  even  harshness,  toward  the  rising 
stock ;  for  the  principle  on  which  their  after  usefulness  is  founded,  is 
early  attachment  to,  and  confidence  in  man,  and  obedience,  implicit 
obedience,  resulting  principally  from  this. 

After  the  second  winter  the  work  of  breaking-in  may  commence  in 
good  earnest.  The  colt  may  be  bitted,  and  a  bit  selected  that  will  not 
hurt  his  mouth,  and  much  smaller  than  those  in  common  use.  With 
this  he  may  be  suffered  to  amuse  himself,  and  to  play,  and  to  champ  it 
for  an  hour,  on  a  few  successive  days. 

Breaking  in  Harness. — Having  become  a  little  tractable,  portions  of  the 
harness  may  be  put  upon  him,  concluding  with  the  blind  winkers;  and, 
a  few  days  afterward,  he  may  go  into  the  team.  It  would  be  better  if 
there  could  be  one  horse  before  and  one  behind  him,  besides  the  shaft 
horse.  There  should  at  first  be  the  mere  empty  wagon.  Nothing 
should  be  done  to  him,  except  that  he  should  have  an  occasional  pat  or 
kind  word.  The  other  horses  will  keep  him  moving,  and  in  his  place  ; 
and  no  great  time  will  pass,  sometimes  not  even  the  first  day,  before  he 
will  begin  to  pull  with  the  rest.  The  load  may  then  be  gradually  in- 
creased. 

Riding. — The  agricultural  horse  is  sometimes  wanted  to  ride  as  well 
as  to  draw.  Let  his  first  lesson  be  given  when  he  is  in  the  team.  Let 
his  feeder,  if  possible,  be  first  put  upon  him.  He  will  be  too  much 
hampered  by  his  harness,  and  by  the  other  horses,  to  make  much  resis- 
tance ;  and,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  will  quietly  and  at  once  submit. 
We  need  not  to  repeat,  that  no  whip  or  spur  should  be  used  in  giving 
the  first  lessons  in  riding. 

Backing. — When  he  begins  a  little  to  understand  his  business,  back- 
ing— the  most  difficult  part  of  his  work — may  be  taught  him ;  first  to 
back  well  without  any  thing  behind  him,  and  then  with  a  light  cart,  and 
afterward  with  some  serious  load — always  taking  the  greatest  care  not 
seriously  to  hurt  his  mouth.  If  the  first  lesson  causes  much  soreness 
of  the  gums,  the  colt  will  not  readily  submit  to  a  second.  If  he  has 
been  previously  rendered  tractable  by  kind  usage,  time  and  patience 
will  do  every  thing  that  can  be  wished.  Some  carters  are  in  the  habit 
of  blinding  the  colt  when  teaching  him  to  back.  This  may  be  neces- 
sary with  a  restive  and  obstinate  one,  but  should  be  used  only  as  a  last 
resort. 

Obedience. — The  colt  having  been  thus  partially  broken-in,  the  neces- 
sity of  implicit  obedience  must  be  taught  him,  and  that  not  by  severity, 
but  by  firmness  and  steadiness.  The  voice  will  go  a  great  way,  but  the 
whip  or  the  spur  is  sometimes  indispensable — not  so  severely  applied  as 
to  excite  the  animal  to  resistance,  but  to  convince  him  that  we  have  the 
power  to  enforce  submission.  Few,  it  may  almost  be  said,  no  horses, 
are  nat-urally  vicious.  It  is  cruel  usage  which  has  first  provoked  resist- 
ance. That  resistance  has  been  followed  by  greater  severity,  and  the 
stubbornness  of  the  animal  has  increased.  Open  warfare  has  ensued, 
in  which  the  man  has  seldom  gained  advantage,  and  the  horse  has  been 
frequently  rendered  unserviceable.  Correction  may,  or  must  be  used, 
to  enforce  implicit  obedience  after  the  education  has  proceeded  to  a 
certain  extent,  but  the  early  lessons  should  be  inculcated  with  kindness 


24  DOMESTIC   ANmALS. 

alone.  Young  colts  arc  sometimes  very  perverse.  Many  days  will  oc- 
casionally pass  before  they  will  permit  the  bridle  to  be  put  on,  or  the 
saddle  to  be  worn  ;  and  one  act  of  harshness  will  double  or  treble  this 
time;  patience  and  kindness,  however,  will  always  prevail.  On  some 
morning,  when  he  is  in  a  better  humor  than  usual,  the  bridle  may  be 
put  on,  or  the  saddle  may  be  worn  ;  and,  this  compliance  being  follow- 
ed by  kindness  and  soothing  on  the  part  of  the  breaker,  and  no  incon- 
venience or  pain  being  suffered  by  the  animal,  all  resistance  will  be  at 
an  end. 

The  same  principles  will  apply  to  the  breaking-in  of  the  horse  for 
the  road  or  the  chase.  The  handling,  and  some  portion  of  instruction, 
should  commence  from  the  time  of  weaning.  The  future  tractability 
of  the  horse  will  much  depend  on  this.  At  two  years  and  a  half,  or 
three  years,  the  regular  process  of  breaking-in  should  commence.  If  it 
is  delayed  until  the  animal  is  four  years  old,  his  strength  and  obstinacy 
will  be  more  difficult  to  overcome.  The  plan  usually  pursued  by  the 
breaker  cannot  perhaps  be  much  improved,  except  that  there  should  be 
much  more  kindness  and  patience,  and  far  less  harshness  and  cruelty, 
than  these  persons  are  accustomed  to  exhibit,  and  a  great  deal  more  at- 
tention to  the  form  and  natural  action  of  the  horse.  A  headstall  is  put 
on  the  colt,  and  a  cavesson  (or  apparatus  to  confine  and  pinch  the  nose) 
affixed  to  it,  with  long  reins.  He  is  first  accustomed  to  the  rein,  then 
led  round  a  ring  on  soft  ground,  and  at  length  mounted  and  taught  his 
paces.  Next  to  preserving  the  temper  and  docility  of  the  horse,  there 
is  nothing  of  so  much  importance  as  to  teach  him  every  pace,  and 
every  part  of  his  duty,  distinctly  and  thoroughly.  Each  most  consti- 
tute a  separate  and  sometimes  long-continued  lesson,  and  that  taught  by 
a  man  who  will  never  suffer  his  passion  to  get  the  better  of  his  discretion. 

After  the  cavesson  has  been  attached  to  the  headstall,  and  the  long 
reins  put  on,  the  colt  should  be  quietly  led  about  by  the  breaker — a 
steady  boy  following  behind,  by  occasional  threatening  with  the  whip, 
but  never  by  an  actual  blow,  to  keep  him  moving.  When  the  animal 
follows  readily  and  quietly,  he  may  be  taken  to  the  ring,  and  walked 
round,  right  and  left,  in  a  very  small  circle.  Care  should  be  taken  to 
teach  him  this  pace  thoroughly,  never  suffering  him  to  break  into  a 
trot.  The  boy  with  his  whip  may  here  again  be  necessary,  but  not  a 
single  blow  should  actually  fall. 

Becoming  tolerably  perfect  in  the  walk,  he  should  be  quickened  to  a 
trot,  and  kept  steadily  at  it ;  the  whip  of  the  boy,  if  needful,  urging 
him  on,  and  the  cavesson  restraining  him.  These  lessons  should  be 
short.  The  pace  should  be  kept  perfect,  and  distinct  in  each  ;  and  do- 
cility and  improvement  rewarded  with  frequent  caresses,  and  handfuls 
of  corn.  The  length  of  the  rein  may  now  be  gradually  increased,  and 
the  pace  quickened,  and  the  time  extended,  until  the  animal  becomes 
tractable  in  these  his  first  lessons,  toward  the  conclusion  of  which, 
crupper-straps,  or  something  similar,  may  be  attached  to  the  clothing. 
These,  playing  about  the  sides  and  flanks,  accustom  him  to  the  flapping 
of  the  coat  of  the  rider.  The  annoyance  which  they  occasion  will  pass 
over  in  a  day  or  two;  for  when  the  animal  finds  that  no  harm  comes  to 
him,  he  will  cease  to  regard  them. 


THE    HORSE.  25 

Bilting. — Xext  comes  the  bitting.  The  bits  should  be  large  and 
smooth,  and  the  reins  buckled  to  a  ring  on  either  side  of  the  pad. 
There  are  many  curious  and  expensive  machines  for  this  purpose,  but 
the  simple  rein  will  be  cpiite  sufficient.  It  should  at  first  be  slack,  and 
then  very  gradually  tightened.  This  will  prepare  for  the  more  perfect 
manner  in  which  the  liead  will  be  afterward  got  into  its  proper  posi- 
tion, when  the  colt  is  accustomed  to  the  saddle.  Occasionally  the 
breaker  should  stand  in  front  of  the  colt,  and  take  hold  of  each  side 
rein  near  to  the  mouth,  and  press  upon  it,  and  thus  begin  to  teach  him 
to  stop  and  to  back  on  the  pressure  of  the  rein,  rewarding  every  act  of 
docilit}^  and  not  being  too  eager  to  punish  occasional  carelessness  or 
waywardness. 

Shying. — The  colt  may  now  be  taken  into  the  road  or  street,  to  be 
gradually  accustomed  to  the  objects  among  which  his  services  will  be 
required.  Here,  from  fear  or  playfulness,  a  considerable  degree  of  start- 
ing and  shying  may  be  exhibited.  As  little  notice  as  possible  should  be 
taken  of  it.  The  same  or  a  similar  object  should  be  soon  passed  again, 
but  at  a  greater  distance.  If  the  colt  still  shies,  let  the  distance  be  still 
farther  increased  until  he  takes  no  notice  of  the  object.  Then  he  may 
be  gradually  brought  nearer  to  it,  and  this  will  be  usually  effected  with- 
out the  slightest  difficulty:  whereas,  had  there  been  an  attempt  to 
force  him  close  to  it  in  the  first  instance,  the  remembrance  of  the  con- 
test w^ould  have  been  associated  with  every  appearance  of  the  object, 
and  the  habit  of  shying  would  have  been  established. 

Use  of  the  AVllip. — Hitherto,  with  a  cool  and  patient  breaker,  the  whip 
may  have  been  shown,  but  wnll  scarcely  have  been  used ;  the  colt  must 
now,  however,  be  accustomed  to  this  necessary  instrument  of  authority. 
Let  the  breaker  walk  by  the  side  of  the  animal,  and  throw  his  right 
arm  over  his  back,  holding  the  reins  in  his  left,  occasionally  quickening 
his  pace,  and  at  the  moment  of  doing  this,  tapping  the  horse  with  the 
whip  in  his  right  hand,  and  at  first  very  gently.  The  tap  of  the  whip 
and  the  quickening  of  the  pace  will  soon  become  associated  in  the  mind 
of  the  animal.  If  necessary,  these  reminders  may  gradually  fall  a  little 
heavier,  and  the  feeling  of  pain  be  the  monitor  of  the  necessity  of  in- 
creased exertion.  The  lessons  of  reining-in  and  stopping,  and  backing 
on  the  pressure  of  the  bit,  may  continue  to  be  practiced  at  the  same 
time. 

Use  to  the  Saddle. — He  may  now  be  taught  to  bear  the  saddle.  Some 
little  caution  wnll  be  necessary  at  the  first  putting  of  it  on.  The  breaker 
should  stand  at  the  head  of  the  colt,  patting  him  and  engaging  his  at- 
tention, while  one  assistant  on  the  offside  gently  places  the  saddle  on 
the  back  of  the  animal,  and  another  on  the  near  side  slowly  tightens 
the  girths.  If  he  submits  quietly  to  this,  as  he  generally  will  when  the 
previous  process  of  breaking-in  has  been  properly  conducted,  the  cere- 
mony of  mounting  may  be  attempted  on  the  following  or  on  the  third 
day.  The  breaker  will  need  two  assistants  in  order  to  accomplish  this. 
He  will  remain  at  the  head  of  the  colt,  patting  and  making  much  of  him. 
The  rider  will  put  his  foot  into  the  stirrup  and  bear  a  little  weight 
upon  it,  while  the  man  on  the  off  side  presses  equally  on  the  other 
stirrup-leather;  and  according  to  the  docilitv  of  the  animal,  he  should 
2 


26  DOMESTIC    A^-LSIALS. 

gradually  increase  the  wei^^ht  until  he  balances  himself  on  the  stirrup. 
If  the  colt  is  uneas}^  or  fearful,  he  should  be  spoken  kindly  to  and  pat- 
ted, or  a  mouthful  of  grain  be  given  to  him ;  but  if  he  offers  serious 
resistance,  the  lessons  must  terminate  for  that  day.  He  may  probably 
be  in  better  humor  on  the  morrow. 

When  the  rider  has  balanced  himself  for  a  minute  or  two,  he  may 
gently  throw  his  leg  over  and  quietly  seat  himself  in  the  saddle.  The 
i)reaker  will  then  lead  the  animal  round  the  ring,  the  rider  sitting  per- 
fectly still.  After  a  few  minutes  he  will  take  the  reins  and  handle  them 
as  gently  as  possible,  and  guide  the  horse  by  the  pressure  of  them,  pat- 
ting him  frequently,  and  especially  when  he  thinks  of  dismounting; 
and,  after  having  dismounted,  offering  him  a  little  grain  or  green  feed. 
The  use  of  the  rein  in  checking  him,  and  of  the  pressure  of  the  leg  and 
the  touch  of  the  heel  in  quickening  his  pace,  will  soon  be  taught,  and  his 
education  will  be  nearly  completed. 

Riildliess  united  with  Firmness. — The  horse  having  thus  far  submitted 
himself  to  the  breaker,  these  pattings  and  rewards  must  be  gradually 
diminished,  and  implicit  obedience  mildly  but  firmly  enforced.  Sever- 
ity will  not  often  be  necessary.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases  it  will 
be  altogether  uncalled  for :  but  should  the  animal  in  a  moment  of  way- 
wardness dispute  the  command  of  the  breaker,  he  must  at  once  be 
taught  that  he  is  the  slave  of  man,  and  that  we  have  the  power,  by 
other  means  than  those  of  kindness,  to  bend  him  to  our  will.  The 
education  of  the  horse  should  be  that  of  the  child.  Pleasure  is  as 
much  as  possible  associated  v/ith  the  early  lessons,  but  firmness,  or  if 
need  be,  coercion,  must  establish  the  habit  of  obedience.  Tyranny  and 
cruelty  will  more  speedily  in  the  horse  than  even  in  the  child,  provoke 
the  wish  to  disobey  and,  on  every  practicable  occasion,  the  resistance 
to  command.  The  restive  and  vicious  horse  is,  in  ninety-nine  cases  out 
of  a  hundred,  made  so  by  ill-usage  and  not  by  nature.  Xone  but  those 
who  will  take  the  trouble  to  make  the  experiment  are  aware  how  abso- 
lute a  command  the  due  admixture  of  firmness  and  kindness  will  soon 
give  us  over  any  horse. 


THE    ART    OF    HORSE-TAMING,    AS    PRACTICED    BY  WILLIAM    AND 
JOHN    S.  RAREY. 

The  great  success  which  has  attended  the  system  of  training  horses, 
as  practiced  by  the  Rarey  brothers,  induces  us  to  publish  their  system  ; 
and  to  illustrate  it  with  appropriate  engravings.*  Their  success  is 
certainly  wonderful.  The  system  which  they  follow  is,  at  once  humane, 
rational  and  philosophical  ;  and  we  earnestly  commend  its  adoption  to 
all  who  manage  horses  not  only,  but  all  the  other  domestic  animals. 

As  evidence  of  Mr.  Ilarey's  success  in  England,  we  copy  the  follow- 
ing instances  from  the  London  Review. 


*  For  the  illustrations  of  the  ''  Rarey  system,"  we  are  under  obliprations  to  the 
Rural  New-Yorker,  and  which  it  gives  us  pleasure  to  commend  to  tlie  attention  of 
our  readers,  as  one  of  the  most  valuaVjle  faraih'  and  agricultural  journals  published 
in  this  country.     It  has  a  wide  circulation  and'  well  deserves  it. 


THE   IIOKSE.  2V 

"  Cruiser  has  been  vicious  from  a  foal,  always  troublesome  to  handlo 
(we  are  using  his  owner's  language),  and  showing  temper  on  every 
opportunity.  lie  would  kneel  in  the  street,  and  tear  the  ground  with 
his  teeth  in  his  paroxysms  of  rage. — He  would  lean  against  the  wall  of 
his  box,  and  kick  and  scream  for  ten  minutes  together;  and  he  was  re 
turned  from  stables  in  which  he  had  been  placed,  because  his  savai>;G 
propensities  rendered  the  care  of  him  too  dangerous  an  office  for  any 
man.  For  days,  he  would  allow  no  one  to  enter  his  box ;  and  on  one 
occasion,  tore  an  iron  bar,  one  inch  thick,  in  two  with  his  teeth.  Such 
an  animal  was  not  a  very  promising  subject  to  operate  upon  ;  but  Mr. 
Rarey  undertook  his  cure.  He  first  subjugated  a  two-year-ola  fiUcy 
perfectly  unbi*oken,  in  half  an  hour — riding  her — opening  an  umbrella, 
beating  a  drum  upon  her,  (fee.  He  then  took  Cruiser  in  band,  and, 
says  Lord  Dorchester,  'in  three  hours,  Mr.  Rarey  and  myself  mounted 
him.'  He  had  not  been  ridden  for  nearly  three  years,  and  was  so  vicious 
that  it  was  impossible  even  to  dress  him ;  and  it  was  necessary  to  keep 
him  muzzled  constantly.  The  following  morning  Mr.  Rarey  led  him 
behind  an  open  carriage,  on  his  way  to  London." 

Twice  the  creature  flew  at  the  tamer  with  a  fierce  cry,  but  be  kept 
out  of  his  reach  behind  a  half-door ;  at  last  he  grew  a  little  kinder,  and 
Mr.  Rarey  succeeded  in  tying  his  head  to  the  rack.  This  sense  of 
restraint,  which  he  had  not  known  for  three  years,  maddened  the  horse, 
the  blood-vessels  of  the  head  dilated,  and  his  frenzy  for  nearly  twenty 
minutes  was  such,  that  Lord  Dorchester  begged  Mr.  Rarey  not  to  peril 
his  life,  and  to  think  no  more  of  the  £100  bond,  which  he  had  given, 
to  return  him  cured  in  three  months.  However,  America  was  not  daunt- 
ed; and  when  the  horse  was  slightly  exhausted,  he  made  his  first  eifort, 
and  by  the  end  of  three  hours  the  evil  spirit  seemed  to  have  departed. 
On  the  Monday  following,  Mr. Rarey  opened  his  school.  The  "incura- 
bly savage"  horse  was  there,  and  was  gentle  as  a  dove,  before  an  audi- 
ence of  full  three  hundred  ;  all  of  whom  had  heard  of  his  vicious  pro- 
pensities. You  could  have  heard  a  pin  drop,  when  the  American  horse- 
tamer  asked  his  four-legged  pupil  to  shake  hands  with  him,  at  the  termi- 
nation of  a  lecture,  listened  to  with  intense  interest,  by  an  exalted  and 
delighted  assembly  of  the  noblest  and  fairest  in  the  land.  The  Wed- 
nesday after  Mr.  Rarey  rode  the  horse  about  London. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  RAREY  SYSTEM.— "i^/r^-^— That  the  horse  is  so 
constituted  by  nature  that  he  will  not  offer  resistance  to  any  demand 
made  of  him  which  he  fully  comprehends,  if  made  in  a  way  consistent 
with  the  laws  of  his  nature.  Second — That  he  has  no  consciousness  of 
his  strength  beyond  his  experience,  and  can  be  handled  according  to 
our  will  without  force.  Third — That  we  can,  in  compliance  with  the 
laws  of  his  nature,  by  which  he  examines  all  things  new  to  him,  take 
any  object,  however  frightful,  around,  over,  or  on  him,  that  does  not  in- 
flict pain,  without  causing  him  to  fear." 

The  aff"ectionate  enthusiasm  with  which  the  horse  is  spoken  of  by  Mr. 
Rarey  in  the  paragraph  annexed,  copied  from  his  work,  would  also  seem 
to  indicate  that  any  thing  but  harsh  means  are  used  in  his  subjection. 
Mr.  Rarey  says : 

"The  horse,  according  to  the  best  accounts  we  can  gather,  has  been 


28 


DOMESTIC   A^^niALS. 


FlCJ.    1.      FIRST   POSITION. 


the  constant  servant  of  man  for  nearly  four  thousand  years,  ever  re- 
warding him  with  his  labor,  and  adding  to  his  comfort  in  proportion  to 
his  skill  and  manner  of  using  him  ;  but  being  to  those  who  govern  him 
by  brute  force,  and  know  nothing  of  the  beauty  and  delight  to  be  gained 
from  the  cultivation  of  his  finer  nature,  a  fretful,  vicious,  and  often  dan- 
gerous servant;  while  to  the  Arab,  whose  horse  is  the  pride  of  his  life, 
and  who  governs  him  by  the  law  of  kindness,  we  find  him  to  be  quite  a 
diff'erent  animal.  The  manner  in  which  he  is  treated  from  a  foal  gives 
him  an  afi"ection  and  attachment  for  his  master  not  known  in  any  other 
country.  The  Arab  and  his  children,  the  mare  and  her  foal,  inhabit  the 
tent  together;  and,  although  the  colt  and  the  mare's  neck  are  often 
pillows  for  the  children  to  roll  upon,  no  accident  ever  occurs,  the  mare 
being  as  careful  of  the  children  as  of  the  colt.  Such  is  the  mutual  at- 
tachment between  the  horse  and  his  master,  that  he  will  leave  his  com- 
panions at  his  master's  call,  ever  glad  to  obey  his  voice.  And  when  the 
Arab  falls  from  his  horse,  and  is  unable  to  rise  again,  he  will  stand  by 
him  and  neigh  for  assistance ;  and  if  he  lies  down  to  sleep,  as  fatigue 
sometimes  compels  him  to  do  in  the  midst  of  the  desert,  his  faithful 
steed  will  watch  over  him,  and  neigh  to  arouse  him  if  man  or  beast 
approaches.  The  Arabs  frequently  teach  their  horses  secret  signs  or 
signals,  which  they  make  use  of  on  urgent  occasions  to  call  forth  their 
utmost  exertions." 

Mr.  Rarey  places  much  stress  upon  the  kindly  tones  of  the  human 
voice,  manner  of  speaking,  the  words  used,  and  finishes  his  philosophiz- 
ing upon  the  subject  by  detailing  a  short  sketch  of  an  "Arab  and  his 
steed,"  in  which  he  endeavors  to  show  the  entire  comprehension  pos- 
sessed by  the  horse  of  the  language  addressed  to  him.  We  quote  it 
entire :  "  A  Bedouin  named  Jabal  possessed  a  mare  of  great  celebrity. 
Hassan  Pasha,  then  governor  of  Damascus,  wished  to  buy  the  animal, 
and  repeatedly  made  the  owner  the  most  liberal  off'ers,  which  Jabal 
steadily  refused.  The  Pasha  then  had  recourse  to  threats,  but  with  no 
better  success.  At  length,  one  Gcifar,  a  Bedouin  of  another  tribe,  pre- 
sented himself  to  the  Pasha,  and  asked  him  what  he  would  give  the  man 
who  should  make  him  master  of  Jabal's  mare,     '  I  will  fill  his  horse's 


THE   HOKSE. 


29 


FlO.  2.      TEACHING  THE   HORSE   TO   KNEEL. 


nose-bag  with  gold,'  replied  Hassan.  The  result  of  this  interview  having 
gone  abroad,  Jabal  became  more  watchful  than  ever,  and  always  secured 
his  mare  at  night  with  an  iron  chain,  one  end  of  which  w^as  fastened  to 
his  hind  fetlock,  whilst  the  other,  after  passing  through  the  tent-cloth, 
was  attached  to  a  picket  driven  in  the  ground  under  the  felt  that  served 
himself  and  his  wife  for  a  bed.  But  one  midnight  Gafer  crept  silently 
into  the  tent,  and  succeeded  in  loosening  the  chain.  Just  before  start- 
ing off  with  his  prize,  he  caught  up  Jabal's  lance,  and,  poking  him  with 
the  butt  end,  cried  out,  'I  am  Gafar;  I  have  stolen  your  noble  mare, 
and  will  give  you  notice  in  time.'  This  w^arning  was  in  accordaiice  with 
the  customs  of  the  desert,  for  to  rob  a  hostile  tribe  is  considered  an 
honorable  exploit,  and  the  man  who  accomplishes  it  is  desirous  of  all 
the  glory  that  may  flow  from  the  deed.  Poor  Jabal,  when  he  heard  the 
words,  rushed  out  of  the  tent,  and  gave  the  alarm  ;  then,  mounting  his 
brother's  mare,  accompanied  by  some  of  his  tribe,  he  pursued  the  robber 
for  four  hours.  The  brother's  mare  w^as  of  the  same  stock  as  Jabal's, 
but  was  not  equal  to  her;  nevertheless,  he  outstripped  those  of  all  the 
other  pursuers,  and  was  even  on  the  point  of  overtaking  the  robber, 
when  Jabal  shouted  to  him,  'Pinch  her  right  ear,  and  give  her  a  touch 
of  the  heel.'  Gafar  did  so,  and  away  went  the  mare  like  lightning, 
speedily  rendering  further  pursuit  hopeless. 

"The  pinch  in  the  ear  and  the  touch  with  the  heel  were  the  secret 
signs  by  which  Jabal  had  been  used  to  urge  his  mare  to  her  utmost 
speed.  Jabal's  companions  were  amazed  and  indignant  at  his  strange 
conduct.  '  O,  thou  father  of  a  jackass  !'  they  cried,  '  thou  hast  enabled 
the  thief  to  rob  thee  of  thy  jewel.'     But  he  silenced  their  upbraidings 


bv 


I  would  rather  lose  her  than  sully  her  reputation.     Would 


you  have  me  suffer  it  to  be  said  among  the  tribe,  that  another  mare  had 
proved  fleeter  than  mine  ?  I  have  at  least  this  comfort  left  me,  that 
I  can  say  she  never  met  with  her  match.'  " 

When  you  enter  the  stable,  in  which  is  the  horse  to  be  experiment- 
ed upon,  stand  still  for  a  short  time  and  let  the  horse  observe  you,  and 
as  soon  as  he  stands  quiet  advance  slowly,  upon  the  left  or  near  side, 
on  a  line  with  the  shoulder,  your  right  hand  hanging  by  your  side — 


so 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


Fig.  3,    the  hoese  in  a  kneeling  postuke  peepaeatoey  to  lying  down. 


tlie  left  bent  at  tlie  elbow,  with  the  hand  projecting.  As  you  move 
forward  go  not  too  much  toward  his  head  or  croup,  so  as  not  to  make 
him  move  either  forward  or  backward,  thus  keeping  your  horse  sta- 
tionary ;  if  he  does  move  a  little  either  forward  or  backward,  step  a  little 
to  the  right  or  left  very  cautiously  ;  this  will  keep  him  in  the  right  place. 
When  almost  in  contact  stand  motionless  for  a  second  or  two,  giving  the 
animal  another  opportunity  to  survey  you,  then,  speaking  in  a  soothing 
tone,  place  the  hand  ligiitly  upon  the  shoulder,  working  up  toward  the 
neck,  stroking  in  the  direction  in  which  the  hair  lies,  down  the  side  and 
front  of  the  face  to  the  nostrils.  When  the  nose  is  reached  suffer  the  hand 
to  remain,  that  the  horse  may  smell  of  it  two  or  three  times,  and  then  as 
Mr.  Rarey  facetiously  remarked,  "you've  got  the  animal."  Now  halter 
securely.  Next  in  order,  pass  down  the  neck  to  the  shoulder  and  on- 
ward to  the  fore-arin,  when  you  must  prevail  upon  the  horse  to  lift  the 
leg  which  is  fastened  in  the  manner  described  in  our  illustration.  No.  1. 
A  looped  strap  that  can  be  slipped  over  the  knee  is  the  most  expedi- 
tious. We  will  here  remark  that  the  iloor  should  be  liberally  covered 
with  straw  (tan-bark  or  saw-dust  is  better),  to  prevent  any  injury  result- 
ing to  the  knees,  and  it  would  be  well  to  apply  knee-caps.  While  in 
this  position,  after  letting  him  stand  for  a  short  period,  buckle  a  strong 
surcingle  around  the  horse,  the  surcingle  having  a  loop  upon  it,  (see 
fig.  2,)  then  fasten  a  strap  around  the  fetlock  of  the  ofi'  leg,  passing  the 
other  extremity  of  the  strap  through  the  loop.  AVhen  this  portion  of 
the  business  is  completed  you  are  ready  for  active  operations. 

The  object  now  is,  to  back  the  horse  about  the  stable  until  he  is 
tired  and  evidently  wishes  to  lie  down,  then  compel  him  to  move  for- 
ward, and  when  the  animal  lifts  the  oft' foot  for  that  purpose,  draw  upon 
the  strap  fastened  around  that  leg,  thus  elevating  it  to  a  like  position 
with  its  mate.  The  procedure  is  portrayed  in  our  second  engraving. 
Just  as  soon  as  this  strap  is  drawn  tightly,  seizethe  halter  close  to  the 
head  and  let  the  animal  down  easily  upon  his  knees,  as  seen  in  fig.  3. 
This  is  a  critical  period,  and  tlie  operator  must  possess  coolness  and 
energy  to  prevent  disaster  to  himself  or  the  animal.  When  the  horse 
attempts  to  rise,  pull  hio  head  around  toward  the  shoulder  and  his 
demonstrations  will  prove  futile.  ]>ear  your  weight  against  his  hips, 
and  by  voice  and  action  endeavor  to  give  him  an  idea  of  your  wishes, 
continuing  the  movements  as  long  as  it  is   necessary,  when   he  will 


THE  iiOEsr:.  31 


Fig.  4.    lying  down  and  subdued. 

finally  lie  down.  As  soon  as  he  is  down  (see  fig.  4)  and  his  struggling 
has  ceased,  caress  his  face  and  neck;  handle  ever}^  part  of  his  body, 
making  j'ourself  familiar  as  possible.  When  in  this  position  a  short 
time,  remove  the  straps,  straighten  ont  the  limbs,  fondle  with  him  as 
much  as  you  choose,  and  in  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  let  him  rise  again 
to  his  feet.  Repeat  this  operation,  removing  the  straps  as  soon  as  he 
lies  down,  and  in  from  two  to  five  trials  he  is  completel}'  subdued — he 
will  follow  you  like  a  dog,  and  you  may  take  any  liberties  with  him 
without  a  fear  as  to  the  result.  If  a  thorough  course  of  instruction  is 
given — and  he  must  be  educated;  no  boifs  play  about  it — he  will  seek 
the  fioor  if  you  simply  raise  the  fore-leg  and  give  the  command,  "  Lie 
down,  sir.'' 

AVe  give  the  following  rules  for  the  guidance  of  any  who  may  wish 
to  practice,  simply  remarking  that  their  strict  observance  is  imperative: 

First.  The  horse  must  not  be  forced  down  by  violence,  but  must  be 
tired  out  until  he  has  a  strong  desire  to  lie  down. 

Second.  He  must  be  kept  quiet  on  the  ground  until  the  expression 
of  the  eye  shows  that  he  is  tranquilized,  which  invariably  takes  place 
by  patiently  waiting  and  gently  patting  the  horse. 

Third.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  throw  the  horse  upon  his  neck 
when  bent,  as  it  may  easily  be  broken. 

Fourth.  In  backing  him  no  violence  must  be  used,  or  he  may  be 
forced  on  his  haunches  and  his  back  broken. 

Fifth.  The  halter  and  off  rein  are  held  in  the  left  hand,  so  as  to 
keep  the  head  away  from  the  latter;  while,  if  the  horse  attempts  to 
plnno-e,  the  halter  is  drawn  tight,  when,  the  off-leg  being  raise<l,  the 
animal  is  brought  on  his  knees,  and  rendered  powerless  for  offensive 
purpos'S. 

Catching  the  Colt. — If  the  colt  is  in  the  pasture,  approach  kindly  and 
quietly,  extending  but  one  arm,  and  as  you  move  toward  him  speak 
soothingly.  If  any  difficulty  is  caused  by  his  movements  to  avoid  con- 
tact, keep  the  temper  cool  and  persist  in  the  effort  to  its  completion, 
which  cannot  exceed  a  few  minutes.  If  you  rush  after  him  with  arras 
swinging,  and  hallooino-,  he  fears  bodily  harm,  and  will  exert  his  utmost 
strength  to  escape.  This  should  not  be — from  first  to  last  the  presence 
of  man  should  never  be  connected  with  the  fear  of  injury. 

Stalilins  tllC  Colt. — Mr.  Rarev  calls  stablinnr  the  most  warv  colt  a  ten 


32  DOMESTIC)    ANIM^VLS. 

minutes'  job.  Ilitcli  a  gentle  horse  by  the  stable  door,  and  when  all 
obstructions  arc  removed,  approach  the  colt  on  the  opposite  side  quietly 
and  slowly.  To  avoid  you,  he  will  move  toward  the  horse  and  unsus- 
piciously enter  the  stable.  The  doorway  is  a  novel  thing  to  him — he 
possesses  not  the  least  idea  of  its  purpose — he  sees  an  opening  and 
passes  in  to  get  away  from  those  coming  too  near  him,  and  the  prox- 
imity of  the  trained  horse  insures  his  safety.  Should  he  escape,  patiently 
repeat  the  process.  When  secured,  lead  away  the  horse  and  give  the 
colt  a  handful  of  grain. 

General  Rules. — As  general  rules  for  the  various  operations,  Mr.  Rarey 
recommends  that  the  shed  or  stable  used  should  be  light,  and  high 
enough  to  admit  of  a  man's  riding  around  without  danger  to  his  head  ; 
that  chickens,  swine,  and  other  animals  be  excluded,  as  serving  to  at- 
tract the  attention  of  the  horse ;  that  on  no  account  shall  any  person 
accompany  the  tamer,  or  be  present  at  his  operations,  in  order  that  the 
attention  of  the  horse  be  not  divided  between  two  or  more  objects  ;  that 
before  entering  the  stable  the  tamer  shall  know  accurately  all  the  pro- 
cesses he  intends  to  go  through  with  the  horse;  and  that  sufficient  time 
must  be  given  the  animal,  at  each  stage  of  the  proceedings,  to  fully  com- 
prehend what  is  being  done,  and  what  is  wanted  of  him. 

Putting  on  the  Halter. — After  your  introduction  to  the  colt,  and  by 
familiarity  he  has  become  at  ease  in  your  presence,  you  may  proceed  to 
halter  him.  A  rope  halter  should  never  be  used — one  made  of  leather 
and  properly  fitted  is  the  article  needed.  Approach  him,  and,  after  a 
few  caresses,  smoothing  his  head  and  neck  without  moving,  fasten  the 
end  of  the  halter-strap  about  his  neck.  You  stand  at  the  left  side  of 
the  colt.  Laying  your  right  arm  across  his  neck,  put,  with  your  left 
hand,  the  long  or  buckle  end  of  the  upper  part  of  your  halter  under  his 
neck;  hold  it  loosely  with  your  right  hand,  and  then  loose  your  strap. 
Now  you  can  lowx'r  the  upper  part ;  slip  his  nose  into  the  appropriate 
place,  and  buckling  the  upper  part,  you  have  haltered  your  colt  without 
in  the  least  frightening  him.  Let  him  run  around  you,  taking  care 
never  to  check  him  roughly  or  draw  him  violently  in  any  direction. 
Gradually  approach  him  by  shortening  your  hold  upon  the  halter,  until 
you  can  lay  your  hand  upon  his  neck  and  again  caress.  When  you 
have  repeated  this  operation  a  few  times,  he  will  suffer  you  to  reach 
his  side  without  flying  back  or  running  away,  and  he  is  now  ready  for 
taking  an  advance  step  in  his  education. 

Leading  the  Colt. — Up  to  this  period  the  colt  is  ignorant  of  his  strength, 
and  it  behooves  the  instructor  to  keep  him  so.  If  violence  is  resorted 
to — if  the  attempt  to  make  him  follow  is  instituted  by  pulling — he  re- 
sists, .and  a  battle  commences.  Stand  a  little  on  the  near  side,  rub  the 
nose  and  forehead,  pull  gently  upon  the  strap,  touching  at  the  same 
time  the  hind-legs  lightly  with  a  whip,  and  he  will  start  and  advance  a 
few  steps.  Repeat  the  operation  several  times,  and  he  will  soon  learn 
to  follow  by  gently  pulling  upon  the  halter. 

Saddling  and  Bridling. — During  themanipulations  heretofore  described, 
the  mouth  of  the  young  colt  should  be  frequently  handled.  Put  a  snaffle 
between  his  teeth,  holding  it  with  one  hand  while  you  caress  him  with 
the  other.     After  a  short  time  he  will  permit  the  bridle  being  placed 


THE    UOESE.  33 

upon  liim.  The  process  of  saddling  is  niiniitely  described  by  Mr. 
Rarey.  and  we  quote  liiy  remarks  thereupon  froui  the  Loudon  papers. 
Mr.  Jiarey  says  : 

"The  first  thing-  will  be  to  tie  each  stirrup-strap  into  a  loose  knot,  to 
make  them  short  and  prevent  the  stirrups  from  flyiug  about  and  liitting 
him.  Then  double  up  the  skirts  and  take  the  saddle  under  your  right 
arm,  so  as  not  to  frighten  him  with  it  as  you  approach.  AViien  you  got 
to  him,  rub  him  gently  a  few  times  with  your  hand,  and  then  raise  the 
saddle  very  slowly,  until  he  can  see  it,  and  smell  and  feel  it  with  his 
nose.  Then  let  the  skirt  loose,  and  rub  it  very  gently  against  his  neck 
the  way  the  hair  lies,  letting  him  hear  the  rattle  of  the  skirts  as  he  feels 
them  against  him;  each  time  getting  a  little  further  baclovard,  and 
finally  slipping  it  over  his  shoulders  on  his  back.  Shake  it  a  little  with 
your  hand,  and  in  less  than  five  minutes  you  can  rattle  it  about  over  his 
back  as  much  as  you  please,  and  pull  it  oft"  and  throw  it  on  again,  with- 
out his  paying  much  attention  to  it. 

"As  soon  as  you  have  accustomed  him  to  the  saddle,  fasten  the  girth. 
Be  careful  how  you  do  this.  It  often  frightens  the  colt  when  he  feels 
the  girth  binding  him,  and  making  the  saddle  fit  tight  on  his  back. 
You  should  bring  up  the  girth  very  gently,  and  not  draw  it  too  tight  at 
first,  just  enough  to  hold  the  saddle  on.  Move  him  a  little,  and  then 
girth  it  as  tight  as  you  choose,  and  he  will  not  mind  it.  You  should 
see  that  the  pad  of  your  saddle  is  nW  right  before  you  put  it  on,  and 
that  there  is  nothing  to  make  it  hurt  him,  or  feel  unpleasant  to  his  back. 
It  should  not  have  any  loose  straps  on  the  back  part,  to  flap  about  and 
scare  him. 

"  After  you  have  saddled  him  in  this  way,  take  a  switch  in  your 
right  hand  to  tap  him  with,  and  walk  about  in  the  stable  a  few  times  with 
your  right  arm  over  your  saddle,  taking  hold  of  the  reins  on  each  side 
of  his  neck  with  your  right  and  left  hands,  thus  marching  him  about  iu 
the  stable  until  you  teach  him  the  use  of  the  bridle,  and  can  turn  him 
in  any  direction,  and  stop  him  by  a  gentle  pull  of  the  rein.  Always 
caress  him,  and  loose  the  reins  a  little  every  time  you  stop  him." 

Mounting  the  Colt. — The  weight  of  the  arm  in  the  saddle  has  accus- 
tomed him  to  a  slight  burden.  Now  get  a  block,  or  mounting-stool, 
about  eighteen  inches  high,  and  place  it  at  his  side,  liaise  yourself 
very  quietly  upon  the  block,  and  when  you  have  done  so,  loosen  the 
stirrup-strap  upon  the  rear  side,  place  your  foot  in  the  stirrup,  seize  the 
oft'  side  of  the  saddle  with  the  right  hand,  and  cautiously  bear  your 
weight  upon  the  stirrup  and  hand.  After  repeating  this  operation 
several  times  the  colt  learns  there  is  nothing  hurtful,  and  you  must  now 
lift  yourself  veri/  quietbj  into  the  saddle.  Once  upon  his  back,  speak 
gently  to  him,  and  if  he  does  not  move,  pull  the  near  rein  a  little  and 
he  will  start.  Repeat  all  the  operations  of  getting  on  and  oft',  and  rid- 
ing round,  for  a  couple  of  hours. 

The  True  Way  to  Bit  a  Colt. — The  practice  of  placing  a  bitting  harness 
npon  a  colt  the  first  thing  done  with  him,  and  buckling  the  bitting  rein 
as  tight  as  it  can  be  drawn,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  meets  the  severe 
and  just  condemnation  of  Mr.  Rarey.  This  is  one  of  the  most  cruel 
punishments  that  can  be  inflicted  upon  a  colt,  and  to  one  that  is  in  the 
2* 


34  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

habit  of  carrying  the  head  low,  cannot  fail  of  proving  injurions.  A 
horse  should  be  well  accustomed  to  the  bit  before  you  put  on  the  bitting 
harness,  and  when  you  first  bit  him  you  should  only  rein  his  head  up 
to  that  .point  where  he  naturally  holds  it,  let  that  "be  high  or  low ;  he 
will  soon  learn  that  he  cannot  lower  his  head,  and  that  raising  it  a  little 
will  loosen  the  bit  in  his  mouth.  This  will  give  him  the  idea  of  rais- 
ing his  head  to  loosen  the  bit,  and  then  you  can  draw  the  bitting  a 
little  tighter  every  time  you  put  it  on,  and  he  will  still  raise  his  head  to 
loosen  it.  By  this  means  you  will  gradually  get  his  head  and  neck  in 
the  position  you  wish  him  to  carry  it,  and  give  him  a  graceful  carriage 
without  hurting  him,  making  him  angry,  or  causing  his  mouth  to  get 
sore. 

Putting  on  the  Harness. — The  first  requisite  is  a  harness  that  will  fit, 
and  a  little  attention  to  this  will  facilitate  matters  very  much.  The  collar 
needs  special  care,  as  hundreds  of  horses  have  been  spoiled  by  those 
the  chief  features  of  which  were  defects.  Take  the  harness  into  the 
stable,  and  go  through  the  same  process  as  with  the  saddle,  letting  the 
colt  examine  it  as  much  as  he  desires;  then  put  it  on  with  care.  When 
the  operation  is  completed,  put  on  the  lines,  using  them  gentl}^  as  the 
touch,  if  he  is  skittish,  will  startle  him.  Lead  him  back  and  forth  until 
the  fitting  of  the  harness  causes  no  disquietude,  then  take  hold  of  the 
end  of  the  traces,  pulling  slightly  at  first,  and  finally  hitch  him  to  what- 
ever you  wish  him  to  pull. 

To  ilitch  up  the  Colt. — As  the  colt  has  never  paid  any  particular  at- 
tention to  a  buggy  or  carriage,  and  does  not  know  its  uses,  great  caution 
must  be  observed  on  his  introduction.  Lead  him  gently  to  it;  let  him 
examine  it  in  his  own  way — by  sight,  smell,  and  the  exercise  of  the 
sense  of  feeling — and  lead  him  all  around  it.  Presently  he  will  cease 
to  notice  it.  Now  draw  the  shafts  to  the  left,  and  place  him  before  the 
buggy.  One  man  stands  at  his  head.  The  other,  at  his  right  side, 
gently  lifts  the  shafts,  keeping  one  hand  the  while  upon  the  colt's  back, 
and  drops  the  shafts  on  either  side.  They  must  not  touch  him  as  they 
are  brought  down.  It  is  a  nice  job,  and  must  be  performed  very  de- 
liberately. When  you  once  have  him  between  the  shafts,  shake  them, 
so  that  he  may  not  only  hear  but  feel  them  against  him.  At  first  he  is 
a  little  t6uchy.  When  he  no  longer  minds  them,  you  can  ftxsten  him 
up;  and  while  the  man  at  his  head  slowly  leads  him  along,  you  work 
behind,  get  the  lines  over  his  back  (which  must  be  carefully  done),  and 
get  in.  Then  you  must  not  let  him  go  faster  than  a  walk.  This  Mr. 
Karey  insists  upon,  saying  that  the  horse  cannot  at  first  comprehend  the 
multifarious  arrangements  to  which  he  is  hitched,  and  if  hurried  is  con- 
fused. If  the  horse  is  very  wild,  or  attempts  to  kick,  Mr.  Rarey  ties  up 
one  foot  as  seen  in  our  illustration  (fig.  1). 

We  have  thus  gone  through  the  mode  of  training  an  unbroken  colt 
to  the  saddle  and  harness,  and  to  perfect  docility,  and  shall  now  briefly 
treat  of  some  other  matters  pertinent  to  the  subject  under  consideration. 

Blinkers  on  Horses. — Though  not  directly  connected  with  the  process 
of  horse-taming,  we  cannot  refrain  from  giving  the  opinions  of  Mr. 
Rarey  upon  the  use  of  "  blinkers."  These  we  have  long  considered  not 
only  a  useless  appendage  to  the  harness,  but,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree, 


THE    IIOKSE.  85 

delctcrions — affectini^'  the  si^lit — and  Lave  hailed,  with  gratified  feelings, 
the  slight  movement  that  lias  been  made  in  this  country  to  dispose  of 
them.     Mr.  Karey  says  : 

"  I  take  great  pleasure  in  stating  that  all  my  experience  with  and  ob- 
servation of  horses  proves  clearly  to  me  that  blinkers  should  not  be 
used,  and  that  the  sight  of  the  horse,  for  many  reasons,  should  not  be 
interfered  with  in  any  way.  Horses  are  only  fearful  of  objects  wliicli 
they  do  not  understand,  or  are  not  familiar  with,  and  the  eye  is  one  of 
the  principal  mediums  by  v>'hich  this  understanding  and  this  familiarity 
are  brought  about. 

"The  horse,  on  account  of  his  very  amiable  nature,  can  be  made,  in 
the  course  of  time,  to  bear  almost  any  thing  in  any  shape ;  but  there  is 
a  quicker  process  of  reaching  his  inteUigence  than  that  of  wearing  it 
into  him  through  his  skin  and  bones ;  and  he,  however  wild  or  nervous, 
can  be  taught  in  a  very  short  time  to  understand  and  not  to  fear  any 
object,  however  frightful  in  appearance.  Horses  can  be  broken  in  less 
time  and  better  without  blinkers;  but  horses  that  have  always  worn 
them  will  notice  the  sudden  change,  and  must  be  treated  carefully  the 
first  drive.  After  that,  they  will  drive  better  without  the  blinkers  than 
with  them. 

"  I  have  proved,  by  my  own  experiments,  that  a  horse  broken  with- 
out blinkers  can  be  driven  past  any  omnibus,  cab,  or  carriage,  on  a 
parallel  line  as  close  as  it  is  possible  for  him  to  go,  without  ever  waver- 
ing or  showing  any  disposition  to  dodge.  I  have  not  in  the  last  eight 
or  ten  years,  constantly  handling  horses  both  wild  and  nervous,  ever  put 
blinkers  on  any  of  them,  and  in  no  case  have  I  ever  had  one  that  was 
afraid  of  the  carriage  he  drew  behind  him  or  of  those  he  passed  in  the 
streets. 

"The  horse's  eye  is  the  life  and  beauty  of  the  animal,  as  well  as  the 
index  of  all  his  emotions.  It  tells  the  driver,  in  the  most  in'pressive 
characters,  what  the  horse's  feelings  are.  By  it  he  can  tell  the  first  ap- 
proach of  fear  in  time  to  meet  any  difliculty ;  he  can  tell  if  he  is  happy 
or  sad,  hungry  or  weary.  The  horse,  too,  when  permitted  to  see,  uses 
his  eyes  with  great  judgment.  He  sees  better  than  we  do.  He  can 
measure  distances  with  his  eyes  better  than  we  can,  and,  if  allowed  free 
use  of  them,  would  often  save  himself,  by  the  quickness  of  his  sight, 
from  collisions,  when  the  driver  would  fail  to  do  so  by  a  timely  pull  of 
the  reins.  It  would  also  save  many  accidents  to  pedestriar.s  in  the 
streets,  as  no  horse  will  run  on  to  any  person  that  he  can  see.  ^  '^  * 
I  have  yet  to  find  the  man  who,  haviug  once  left  them  off",  could  ever  be 
persuaded  to  put  them  on  again.  They  are  an  unnecessary  and  in- 
jurious incumbrance  to  the  horse,  and  I  feel  confident,  it'  the  cabmen 
of  London  will  leave  them  off  for  one  year,  that  blinkers  on  cab-horses 
will  never  be  seen  again  in  the  streets,  and  will  only  be  a  thing  to  be 
read  of  as  one  of  the  follies  happily  reformed  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury." 

to  Drive  a  Kicking  Horse. — Bend  up  the  near  fore-foot  (see  fig.  1,  first 
position),  then  draw  a  loop  over  the  knee  and  up  to  the  pastern  joint, 
and  secure  it  there.  The  horse  cannot  kick  while  standing  on  three 
legs,  and  there  is  this  further  advaritago,  handiing  in  this  plight  con- 


36  DOMI^STIC    AKIMALS. 

quers  immediately.  Sometimes  he  gets  very  angry,  strikes  the  knee  on 
the  ground,  and  otherwise  endeavors  to  get  the  knee  loose.  Yoii  ran 
sit  down  and  look  at  him  at  your  case  till  he  gives  up.  When  this 
takes  place,  let  down  the  horse's  foot,  rub  his  leg,  and  caress  him;  let 
him  rest  a  little,  and  then  put  the  foot  up  again.  Repeat  this  several 
times,  till  the  horse  has  learned  to  walk  on  three  legs.  You  then  put 
the  horse  into  a  sulky.  Having  his  foot  hitched  up,  he  cannot  kick, 
howsoever  much  he  may  desire  to ;  nor  can  he  run  away,  if  ever  so 
much  inclined.  Mr.  Rarey's  theory  is,  that  a  horse  kicks  because  he  is 
afraid  of  something  behind  him,  or  of  the  man  or  other  object  ap- 
proaching him.  And  he  first  incapacitates  him  from  kicking,  and  then 
accustoms  him  to  whatever  he  was  before  in  fear  of,  be  this  a  rattling 
vehicle,  or  a  man's  hand  on  his  heels.  A  very  few  hours'  time  suffices 
to  accomplish  this  taming  of  the  most  vicious  brute. 

About  Balky  Horses. — Mr.  Rarey  asserts  that  the  horse  knows  nothing 
naturally  about  balking — and  that  the  animal  which  practices  any  of 
the  various  freaks  known  under  this  name,  docs  so  either  because  bad 
management  has  led  him  into  bad  habits,  or  because,  though  willing  to 
obey,  he  does  not  comprehend  what  his  master  desires  of  him.  In  all 
these  cases,  therefore,  he  maintains  that  the  whip  and  the  loud  angry 
voice  are  entirely  out  of  place,  and  only  make  bad  worse.  If  the  horse 
balks  he  is  excited.  The  first  thing,  therefore,  is  to  go  to  his  head, 
speak  to  him  kindly,  pat  and  smooth  him,  and  thus  get  him  quieted 
down.  The  whip  must  not  be  shown  at  all.  When  he  is  calmed  you 
can  start  your  team.  It  is  not  a  sudden  jerk  against  the  collar  which 
moves  the  load,  but  a  steady  pressure.  All  kinds  of  violence,  therefore, 
tend  to  the  wrong  course.  The  object  is  to  start  the  horses  even  ;  and 
as  the  balky  horse  generall}'  plunges  first,  you  are  to  keep  him  back 
gently  till  they  can  both  tak*^  the  strain  together.  A  quick  way  to 
accomplish  this — but  not  the  surest  way,  Mr.  Rarey  says — "is  one  I  have 
myself  seen  practiced  in  Ohio.  This  is,  to  lift  one  fore-foot  of  the  balky 
horse,  and  start  the  team.  As  he  presses  forward,  you  let  him  have  his 
foot,  when  he  will  almost  always  take  the  strain  with  his  mate."  A 
better  w'ay,  according  to  Mr.  Rarey,  is  to  let  the  lines  hang  quite  slack, 
get  the  horses  calmed  down,  and  then  stand  in  front  of  them,  and  turn 
them  gently  to  the  right  without  letting  them  bring  a  strain  upon  the 
traces.  From  this  turn  them  as  gently  to  the  left.  By  this  time  they 
will  be  moving  in  unison,  and,  as  you  turn  them  again  to  the  right, 
steady  them  in  the  collar,  and  they  will  go  off  together  easily.  If  vou 
are  patient  and  careful,  you  can  make  any  horse  pull  true  by  this 
mauairement. 


STABLE  MANAGEMENT.— The  first  thing  of  importance  in  the  treat- 
ment of  a  horse  is  the  building  which  is  provided  for  him,  or  his  stable. 
Perhaps  the  best  way  of  treating  the  subject  is  to  show  wdiat  his  stable 
ought  not  to  be,  and  that,  unfortunately  both  for  the  animal  and  his 
owner,  will  be  to  show  what  it  too  generally  is. 

In  the  first  place,  it  ought  not  to  be  dark  ;  and  in  this  respect  there 
are  but  too  many  proprietors  of  horses  who  will,  in  their  practice  at 


TIIF.    IIOKSE.  37 

any  rate,  be  at  issue  \Yith  us,  though  the  total  or  partial  blindness  of 
their  horses  should  have  taught  them  better;  for  from  this  cause  in 
general  springs  the  blindness  of  the  animal,  which,  by  nature,  is  no 
more  predisposed  to  blindness  than  is  his  owner.  x\nd  not  only  does  a 
dark  stable  affect  the  sight  of  a  horse,  but  his  general  health  also, 
especially,  as  is  often  the  case,  if  he  be  immured  in  his  stable  for  days 
together.  Light  is  just  as  essential  to  a  healthy  condition  as  food  itself, 
and  an  animal  can  no  more  thrive  without  the  one  than  the  other. 
The  man  who  invented  dark  stables  was  no  doubt  the  progenitor  of 
him  who  invented  the  barbarous  practice  of  docking  and  nicking  horses' 
tails. 

The  next  thing  to  be  considered  is  ventilation  ;  and  this — as  stables 
are  commonly  ventilated,  or  rather  not  ventilated — is  believed  to  be  of 
no  moment  whatever.  In  many  old  country  stables  we  find  the  door 
made  of  two  portions,  the  upper  one  opening  whilst  the  lower  one  is 
made  fast.  This  is  very  well  for  farm  stables ;  but  this  construction  is 
not  adapted  for  those  where  horses  of  the  higher  class  are  kept.  AVith 
a  door  of  this  description,  open  at  the  top,  and  a  lofty  window  at  the 
other  end,  open  at  the  top  also,  a  draught  takes  place  which  is  above 
the  horse's  back,  and  will  ventilate  the  stable  thoroughly,  especially  if 
the  stable  be  lofty,  as  it  always  should  be,  though  it  is  in  general  con- 
structed so  as  to  have  a  hay-loft  over  it — a  great  convenience,  no  doubt 
— but  one  which  should  not  be  permitted  to  reduce  the  height  of  the 
stable  itself  to  some  seven  or  eight  feet ;  in  which  circumscribed  space 
a  team  of  horses  are  often  confined  for  the  night,  under  the  necessity  of 
breathing  the  same  air  as  they  have  expired.  To  expect  horses  to  be 
healthv  or  sound  under  such  a  condition  is  to  expect  an  impossibility. 

Venlihltioil. — A  little  consideration  will  show  the  importance  of  per- 
fect ventilation.  The  air  which  the  horse  expires  is  as  totally  different 
a  substance  from  that  which  he  inhales  as  wood  is  from  iron.  He  in- 
hales atmospheric  air,  and  the  constituents  of  this  pass  through  his 
lunti^s,  and  into  his  blood  ;  he  expires  carbonic  acid  gas,  one  of  the  gases 
most  inimical  to  animal  life,  as  any  man  may  convince  himself  who  will 
go  down  into  an  old  unused  well.  If  this  deadly  gas  be  not  carried  off 
by  proper  ventilation,  it  becomes  mixed  with  the  atmospheric  air  of  the 
stable,  and  is  again  inhaled,  to  the  great  injury  of  the  animal's  health. 
The  greatest  care  is  also  requisite  that  it  should  be  thoroughly  carried 
off,  and  this  can  only  be  done  as  it  comes  out  from  the  animal's  body  ; 
when  cold,  it  is  heavier  than  atmospheric  air,  and  sinks  to  the  floor  of 
the  stable,  in  which  case  it  is  not  so  easily  got  rid  of,  but  may  lay  the 
foundation  of  diseases  innumerable,  and  will  certainly  shorten  the  use- 
fulness, if  not  the  life,  of  the  animal.  From  this,  as  much  as  from  any 
other  cause,  horses  may  truly  be  said  not  to  live  out  half  their  days. 

A  thorough  ventilat'on  is  as  necessary  in  the  winter  as  the  summer, 
and  there  is  infinitely  less  risk  of  injuring  the  horse  by  cold  than  by 
allowing  him  to  breathe  ex])ired  air  over  again.  If  accustomed  to  proper 
ventilation,  he  will  never  take  cold  from  any  judicious  means  adopted 
to  promote  his  health  and  comfort.  Pure  air  in  winter  is  as  necessary 
as  in  summer;  whilst  in  the  summer  the  more  that  can  be  admitted 
to  cool  the  stable  the  better.     The  building  should,  then,  be  so  con- 

35 


38  DOilESTIC    AND.[AI,S. 

striicted,  as  in  summer  to  admit  the  greatest  possible  quantity  of  cool 
air,  and  in  winter  to  admit  sufficient  for  the  preservation  of  the  purity 
of  the  atmosphere,  without  running  any  risk  from  cold  draughts.  Care 
must  also  be  taken  not  to  admit  draughts  of  air  near  the  horse's  heels, 
or  diseased  legs  will  be  the  result.  Draughts  cannot  be  too  carefully 
guarded  against,  nor  is  it  requisite  that  such  should  occur,  if  a  little 
forethought  only  be  exercised.  Some  writers  on  the  subject  advocate  a 
chimney-shaft  to  be  erected  in  the  stable,  by  which  the  foul  air  can  best 
escape,  and  also  the  admission  of  fresh  air  over  the  animal's  head  by 
means  of  perforated  zinc. 

Cleanliness. — The  next  consideration,  and  it  is  not  less  important  than 
either  of  the  preceding,  is  that  of  cleanliness.  Too  many  persons  be- 
lieve, or  they  act  as  so  believing,  that  the  more  ahorse  stands  and  sleeps 
among  the  tilth  of  his  own  litter,  the  more  he  thrives.  This  is  an  error 
of  ignorance  or  of  idleness,  perhaps  both  combined.  The  etfect  of  it  at 
any  rate  is  to  make  the  animal,  in  addition  to  breathing  his  own  breath 
again,  inhale  the  fetid  ammoniacal  steams  which  arise  from  his  own 
ordure  and  urine.  We  have  even  heard  ftirmers  defend  this  mode,  on 
the  ground  that  the  manure  is  better,  as  though  the  manure  were  worth 
any  thing  in  comparison  with  the  horse. 

The  Stable  Floor. — A  brick  or  stone  stable  floor  is  the  best;  if  the  lat- 
ter, the  stone  should  be  roughened  with  small  furrows,  and  in  either 
case  a  deep  drain  sunk  outside  of  the  stable  is  necessary  for  keeping  it 
perfectly  dry,  without  which  either  brick  or  stone  floors  will  be  preju- 
dicial from  damp.  This  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  Neither  should 
such  drains  be  used  to  carry  otf  the  urine.  The  floor  should  slope  an 
inch  to  a  yard,  but  only  to  the  gutter  which  carries  off  the  urine.  In- 
deed, if  this  is  carried  off  by  an  iron  pipe  with  suitable  openings,  so 
much  the  better.  A  tub  sunk  outside  the  stable  as  a  receptacle  for  the 
urine,  will  soon  amply  repay  the  farmer  for  his  trouble;  it  is  too  valu- 
able to  be  permitted  to  difl:\ise  itself  over  the  dung-heap  in  the  yard,  to 
be  w^ashed  away  by  the  first  shower  of  rain. 

Litter  should  always  be  allowed  for  a  horse  to  stale  upon,  as  it  is 
easily  removed,  and  a  little  gypsum  thrown  down  occasionally  will  keep 
the  stable  free  from  smells.  Nothing  can  be  more  offensive  to  either 
horse  or  man  than  the  smell  of  putrid  urine,  whilst  if  this  be  permitted 
to  run  into  a  proper  receptacle,  and  a  little  sulphuric  acid  added  occa- 
sionally, nothing  can  exceed  its  value  as  a  manure,  w^hich  the  farmer 
should  be  as  careful  to  preserve  as  he  is  the  corn  which  it  fertilizes. 

Within  reason,  the  more  room  a  horse  has  in  his  stall  the  less  liable 
will  he  be  to  swollen  legs.  In  no  instance  ought  he  to  have  less  room 
than  six  feet,  and  if  ten  can  be  aftorded  him,  so  much  the  more  will  he 
thrive,  the  comfort  being  especially  felt  after  a  hard  day's  work.  Loose 
boxes  are  indispensable  to  horses  of  value. 

A  perfect  stable  should  never  have  a  hay-loft  over  it.  This  of  course 
will  give  a  little  more  trouble  to  the  stable-man,  but  where  the  comfort 
of  a  horse  is  concerned,  that  is  of  no  consequence  whatever.  A  deep 
manger  with  two  or  three  iron  bars  across  is  far  preferable  to  a  rack  or 
well  for  the  reception  of  hay,  and  will  more  effectually  prevent  waste. 
An  arrangement  for  water  should  also  be  provided.     The  front  must  of. 


TllK    IIOKSE.  39 

course  be  boarded  np,  with  tlic  exception  of  the  part  from  wliich  the 
horse  eats.  The  advantage  of  this  arrangement  would  be,  that  all  the 
hay  would  be  eaten,  and  not  pulled  down,  as  is  generally  the  case,  and 
trodden  underfoot  amongst  the  litter.  Much  hay  will  be  saved  by  the 
use  of  a  deep  manger  as  a  substitute  for  a  rack ;  and  an  equal  saving 
would  take  place  in  grain  if  the  manger  were  made  to  slope  slightly  in- 
ward instead  of  outward,  as  is  usually  the  case.  It  would  exceedingly 
puzzle  a  wasteful  or  mischievous  horse  to  throw  his  corn  out  of  such  a 
mauger  if  deep  enough  ;  but  for  this  the  manger  as  usually  constructed 
affords  him  every  facility. 

Dung  never  ought  to  be  allowed  to  be  swept  up  in  a  corner,  as  is  fre- 
quently the  case,  and  all  wet  htter  should  be  removed.  In  short,  the 
more  pains  that  are  taken  relative  to  a  horse's  comfort  in  a  stable,  the 
more  will  he  repay  those  pains;  and  the  farmer  especially  can  have  no 
better  assurance  that  the  more  the  horses  thrive,  the  more  will  he  him- 
self thrive.  The  very  fact  of  his  attention  to  his  horses  independently 
of  the  more  effective  work  arisino^  therefrom,  will  becret  a  similar  habit 
of  attention  to  every  thino;  else. 

THE  HORSE'S  FOOD.— This  should  be  oats  and  hay  of  the  best  quality; 
beans  for  hard-working  horses  occasionally  varied  with  carrots  or 
Swedes,  bran  mashes,  and  under  some  circumstances  linseed  gruel. 
Many  persons  are  not  aware  that  the  price  of  musty  grain  and  bad  hay 
is  vastly  dearer  than  that  of  the  same  commodities  of  good  quality,  and 
that  the  worse  the  quality  the  higher  the  cost.  It  is  so  nevertheless, 
for  whether  the  purchaser  of  inferior  articles  bargain  for  it  or  not,  he 
always  purchases  with  them  indigestion,  foulness  of  blood,  looseness  of 
the  bowels,  general  debility,  and  glanders,  all  of  these  being  too  costly 
to  be  purchased  into  any  stable.  We  once  knew  a  farmer  whose  prac- 
tice it  was  to  sell  all  his  best  articles  and  keep  the  refuse  of  the  farm  for 
his  own  horses;  the  consequence  was,  that  he  never  was  without  glan- 
ders or  some  other  disease  in  his  stable ;  and  there  was  not  a  carter  in 
the  parish  who  did  not  give  his  team  a  wide  berth  w^ierever  he  met  it 
with  his  own  horses.  It  was  the  man's  system,  nevertheless,  and  he 
either  could  not  see  its  banefulness  or  he  would  not  alter  it ;  so  he  died 
at  last  from  it,  having  caught  a  glanderous  infection  from  his  own 
stable.  Mr.  Spooner,  in  speaking  of  this  subject,  thus  testifies  his  own 
experience  :  "I  have  known  a  serious  loss  sustained  by  a  proprietor  of 
post  and  coach  horses,  from  keeping  a  considerable  stock  of  oats  and 
neglecting  to  turn  them ;  many  horses  became  glandered  and  farcied, 
apparently  in  consequence  of  this  circumstance." 

Wllolt5  or  Bruised  Grain. — iMnch  has  been  said  of  late  respecting  the 
advantage  of  bruising  oats,  aud  various  machines  are  much  in  vogue  for 
the  purpose.  Mr.  Spooner  says  of  them,  "they  are  apt  to  produce 
diarrhoea,  especially  if  the  animal  is  worked  hard."  It  is  further  alleged 
that  many  horses  will  not  eat  them  with  an  appetite,  and  the  opponents 
to  the  system  go  further,  urging  that  unbruised  oats  excite  a  flow  of 
saliva  necessary  to  perfect  digestion,  which  is  not  the  case  with  those 
which  are  bruised.  The  explanation  to  the  first  of  these  questions  sup- 
plies a  very  strong  recommendation.  The  stomach  having  derived  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  nourishment  from  a  moderate  portion  does  not  re- 


40  DOlilES'nC    AJN'IMALS. 

quire  more.  "With  reference  to  the  flow  of  the  saliva,  without  entering 
upon  the  question  how  far  it  is  necessary  to  assist  digestion,  no  animal 
can  swallow  its  food  without  a  sufficiency  of  saliva  to  assist  the  act  of 
deglutition;  and  it  is  not  recommended  to  reduce  the  oats  to  flour,  but 
merely  to  bruise  them.  Many  persons  fancy  that  by  giving  oats  in 
small  quantities  and  spreading  them  thinly  over  the  manger  the  horses 
will  be  induced  to  masticate  them.  Those  who  have  watched  their 
operations  will  find  that  a  greedy-feeding  horse  will  drive  his  corn  up 
into  a  heap,  and  collect  with  his  lips  as  much  as  he  thinks  proper  for  a 
mouthful. 

Little  if  any  advantage  arises  from  cutting  hay  into  chaff,  especially 
for  the  most  valuable  kind  of  horses.  It  is  done  in  cart  stables  to  pre- 
vent waste,  which  is  often  enormous  in  those  departments  where  horses 
are  permitted  to  pull  the  hay  out  of  their  racks  and  tread  it  underfoot. 

The  state  of  perfection  to  w^hich  the  higher  classes  of  the  horse  have 
been  brought  in  this  country,  is  attributable  to  the  great  attention  de- 
voted during  a  long  period  of  time  to  the  selection  of  the  best  descrip 
tions  for  the  purpose  of  perpetuating  the  species ;  the  treatment  they 
have  received  under  the  influence  of  a  propitious  climate,  and  the  nature 
of  the  food  Avith  which  they  have  been  supplied  ;  greater  improvements 
are  capable  of  being  realized  by  judicious  management. 

Value  of  Different  Kinds  of  Food. — Professor  Playfeir,  who  has  made 
experiments  on  the  quantity  of  nutritious  matter  contained  in  different 
kinds  of  food  supplied  to  animals,  found  that  in  one  hundred  lbs.  of 
oats,  eleven  lbs.  represent  the  quantity  of  ghiten  wherewith  flesh  is 
formed,  and  that  an  equal  weight  of  hay  aftords  eight  lbs.  of  similar 
substance.  Both  hay  and  oats  contain  about  sixty-eight  per  cent,  of 
unazotized  matter  identical  with  fat,  of  which  it  must  be  observed  a  vast 
portion  passes  off  from  the  animal  without  being  deposited.  By  this 
calculation,  it  appears  that  if  a  horse  consumes  daily  four  feeds  of  oats 
and  ten  lbs.  of  hay,  the  nutriment  which  he  derives  will  be  equivalent 
to  about  one  lb.  eleven  oz.  of  muscle,  and  thirteen  and  a  half  lbs.  of  su- 
perfluous matter,  which,  exclusively  of  water,  nearly  approximates  the 
exhaustion  of  the  system  by  perspiration  and  the  various  evacuations. 

Oats  have  been  selected  as  that  portion  of  the  food  which  is  to  afford 
the  principal  nourishment.  They  contain  seven  hundred  and  forty- 
three  parts  out  of  a  thousand  of  the  nutritive  matter.  They  should  be 
about  or  somewhat  less  than  a  year  old— heavy,  dry  and  sweet.  New 
oats  will  weigh  ten  or  fii'teen  per  cent,  more  than  old  ones,  but  the  dif- 
ference consists  principally  in  watery  matter,  which  is  gradually  evapo- 
rated. New  oats  are  not  so  readily  ground  down  by  the  teeth  as  old 
ones.  They  form  a  more  glutinous  mass,  difficult  to  digest,  and  when 
eaten  in  considerable  quantities  are  apt  to  occasion  colic,  or  even  stag- 
gers. 

Barley  is  a  common  food  of  the  horse  on  various  parts  of  the  Conti- 
nent, and,  until  the  introduction  of  the  oat,  seems  to  have  constituted 
almost  his  only  food.  It  is  more  nutritious  than  oats,  containing  nine 
hundred  and  twenty  parts  of  nutritive  matter  in  every  thousand.  There 
seems,  however,  to  be  something  necessary  besides  a  great  proportion 
of  nutritive  matter,  in  order  to    render  any  substance  strengthening, 


THE    IIOKSK.  41 

wholesome,  or  fattening;  therefore  it  is  that  in  many  horses  that  are 
hardly  worked,  and  indeed,  in  horses  generally,  barley  does  not  agree 
with  them  so  well  as  oats.  They  are  occasionally  subject  to  inflamma- 
tory complaints,  and  particularly  to  surfeit  and  mange. 

When  barley  is  given,  the  quantity  should  not  exceed  a  peck  daily. 
It  should  always  be  bruised,  and  the  chaff  should  consist  of  equal  quan- 
tities of  hay  and  barley-straw,  and  not  cut  too  short.  If  the  farmer  has 
a  quantity  of  spotted  or  unsalable  barley  that  he  wishes  thus  to  get 
rid  of,  he  must  very  gradually  accustom  his  horses  to  it,  or  he  will  prob- 
ably produce  serious  illness  among  them.  For  horses  that  are  recover- 
ing fi'om  illness,  barley  in  the  form  of  malt  is  often  serviceable  as 
tempting  the  appetite  and  recruiting  the  strength.  It  is  best  given  in 
mashes — water  considerably  below  the  boiling  heat  being  poured  upon 
it,  and  the  vessel  or  pail  kept  covered  for  half  an  hour. 

The  Swedish  Turnip  is  an  article  of  food  the  value  of  which  has  not 
been  sufficiently  appreciated,  and  particularly  for  agricultural  horses. 
Although  it  is  far  from  containing  the  quantity  of  nutritive  matter 
which  has  been  supposed,  that  which  it  has  seems  to  be  capable  of  easy 
and  complete  digestion.  It  should  be  sliced  with  chopped  straw,  and 
without  hay.  It  quickly  fjittens  the  horse  and  produces  a  smooth  glossy 
coat  and  a  loose  skin.  It  will  be  a  good  practice  to  give  it  once  a  day, 
and  that  at  night  when  the  work  is  done. 

Carrots, — The  virtues  of  this  root  are  not  sufficiently  known,  whether 
as  contributing  to  the  strength  and  endurance  of  the  sound  horse,  or  the 
rapid  recovery  of  the  sick  one.  To  the  healthy  horse  they  should  be 
given  sliced  in  his  chaff.  Half  a  bushel  will  be  a  fair  daily  allowance. 
There  is  little  provender  of  which  the  horse  is  fonder.  The  following 
account  of  the  value  of  the  carrot  is  not  exaggerated:  "This  root  is 
held  in  much  esteem.  There  is  none  better,  nor  perliaps  so  good. 
AVhen  first  given,  it  is  slightly  diuretic  and  laxative ;  but  as  the  horse 
becomes  accustomed  to  it,  these  effects  cease  to  be  produced.  They  also 
improve  the  state  of  the  skin." 

Potatoes  have  been  given,  and  with  advantage,  in  their  raw  state 
sliced  with  chaff;  but  where  it  has  been  convenient  to  boil  or  steam 
them,  the  benefit  has  been  far  more  evident.  Purging  has  then  rarely 
ensued.  Some  have  given  boiled  potatoes  alone;  and  horses,  instead  of 
rejecting  them,  have  soon  preferred  them  even  to  the  oat;  but  it  is  bet- 
ter to  mix  them  with  the  usual  manger  feed,  in  the  proportion  of  one 
pound  of  potatoes  to  two  and  a  half  pounds  of  the  other  ingredients. 
The  use  of  the  potato  must  depend  on  its  cheapness  and  the  facility  for 
boiling  it.  Half  a  dozen  horses  would  soon  repay  the  expense  of  a 
steaming  boiler  in  the  saving  of  prorender,  Avithout  taking  into  the 
account  their  improved  condition  and  capability  for  work.'^  A  horse 
fed  on  potatoes  should  have  his  quantity  of  water  materially  curtailed. 

*  Professor  Low  says  that  fifteen  pounds  of  potatoes  yield  as  much  nourishment 
as  four  pounds  and  a  half  of  oats.  You  Thayer  asserts  that  three  .bushels  are 
equal  to  one  hundred  and  twelve  pounds  of  hay ;  and  Curwen,  who  tried  potatoes 
extensively  in  the  feeding  of  horses,  says  that  an  acre  goes  as  far  as  four  acres  of 
hay. 


42  DOMESTIC    ANBIALS. 

EfftCt  on  the  Offspring. — It  is  now  generally  known  that  the  embryo 
offsprino'  partakes  of  the  health  or  condition  of  the  dam,  therefore  the 
food  with  which  the  mother  is  supplied  must  affoct  the  foal.  This  is  a 
subject  too  commonly  disregarded  by  breeders,  although  it  is  constantly 
demonstrated  after  the  foal  comes  into  life.  Ifa  mare  be  supplied  with 
food  which  produces  relaxation,  her  foal  will  be  in  the  same  state;  and 
constipation  is  recognized  in  a  similar  manner.  The  propriety  of  sup- 
plying a  brood-mare  with  the  best  and  most  suitable  kinds  of  food  dur- 
ing pregnancy  cannot  be  too  strongly  impressed.  In  the  management 
of  young  stock  every  effort  should  be  made,  by  giving  them  food  which 
is  adapted  to  the  purpose,  to  bring  them  to  maturity  as  early  as  possi- 
ble ;  by  these  means  the  texture  and  development  of  the  bones,  the 
sinews,  and  the  muscles  is  greatly  accelerated.  The  constitution  of 
each  animal  must  be  consulted,  and  it  is  highly  important,  if  the  acme 
of  condition  is  to  be  attained  by  animals  when  they  arrive  at  an  age  of 
maturity,  that  the  growth  and  gradual  development  of  their  frames 
should  be  composed  of  those  healthy  and  invigorating  materials,  upon 
which  the  structure  of  condition  can  be  raised.  To  accomplish  this, 
hay,  oats,  and  occasionally  beans,  must  form  the  principal  items  of 
food,  and  grass  should  be  provided  only  in  limited  supplies  during  the 
summer  months. 

Grass,  it  may  be  observed,  loses  two-thirds  of  its  weight,  and  a  still 
greater  proportion  of  bulk,  when  converted  into  hay  ;  but  that  extra- 
neous matter  consists  of  moisture,  possessing  no  portion  of  fibrine,  con- 
sequently it  contains  none  of  those  elements  which  increase  muscular 
development.  If  a  horse  be  supported  upon  grass  alone,  he  must  eat  a 
vast  quantity — equal  to  more  than  three  times  the  proportion  of  hay — 
to  derive  an  equivalent  amount  of  nourishment;  being  very  full  of  sap 
and  moisture,  it  is  quickly  digested;  consequently, the  animal  must  be 
continually  devouring  it.  This  distends  the  stomach  and  bowels,  and 
impairs  the  faculty  of  digestion ;  for  the  digestive  powers  require  rest, 
as  well  as  the  other  organs  of  the  body,  if  they  are  to  be  preserved  in 
a  healthy  state.  The  muscular  system  is  debilitated,  and  tat  accumu- 
lates; Hatulent  colic  or  gripes  is  produced,  which  not  unfrequently 
becomes  constitutional.  Nothing  can  be  more  erroneous  than  the  anti- 
quated impression,  that  the  purgative  properties  of  young  grass  in  the 
spring  arc  conducive  to  the  lu'althy  state  of  the  horse.  When  the 
modus  operandi  of  that  description  of  food  is  explained,  the  supposition 
of  its  being  calculated  to  produce  beneficial  effects  must  vanish.  Tiie 
young  green  herbage  is  extensively  overcharged  with  sap  and  moisture, 
of  a  crude,  acrimonious  nature,  and  it  exists  so  abundantly,  that  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  it  cannot  be  taken  up  by  the  organs  destined  for 
the  secretion  of  urine,  or  by  the  absorbent  vessels  of  tlie  body  ;  a  great 
quantity  of  this  superfluous  tluid,  therefore,  passes  into  the  intestines, 
and  is  thus  discharged  in  a  watery  state.  But  the  mischief  does  not  termi- 
nate immediately  on  the  subsiding  of  the  purgative  action  ;  the  absorb- 
ent vessels,  having  been  overloaded,  become  distended  and  relaxed,  and 
some  time  intervenes  before  they  resume  their  healthy  tone,  under  the 
most  judicious  treatment.  This  is  clearly  exemplified'  by  the  habitual 
tendency  which  many  horses   exhibit  of  having  swelled   legs.      When 


THE   HOESE.  43 

this  evil  exists,  any  persons  who  entertain  a  doubt  as  to  the  primary  cause 
may  readily  convince  tliemselves,  by  investigatiuG;  the  course  of  treat- 
ment to  which  tlie  animal  has  been  subjected.  Horses  which  are  reared 
on  wet,  marshy  land  are  invariably  afflicted  with  this  relaxed  condition 
of  the  absorbent  vessels  of  the  legs.  Constant  supplies  of  green  succu- 
lent food  render  the  defects  constitutional,  and  the  most  scientific  stable 
management  is  often  frustrated  when  such  animals  are  required  to  per- 
form ordinary  labor ;  their  legs  fail,  not  from  anatomical  defects,  but 
from  the  cause  explained,  which  operates  injuriously  upon  a  structure 
which  is  naturally  perfect. 

Superficial  judges  of  horses  do  not  mark  the  difference  between  the 
appearances  of  a  tat  and  a  muscular-formed  animal.  If  the  bones  are 
covered,  the  points  filled  out,  and  the  general  contour  looks  pleasing  to 
the  eye,  they  conceive  that  every  requisite  is  accomplished.  A  more 
fallacious  impression  cannot  exist.  A  horse  of  very  moderate  preten- 
sions, if  in  perfect  condition,  will  prove  himself  infinitely  superior  in  the 
quality  of  endurance  or  capability  to  perform  work,  than  one  of  a 
higher  character  which  is  not  in  condition.  If  two  horses  are  ridden 
side  by  side,  at  the  moderate  pace  of  seven  or  eight  miles  in  the  hour, 
on  a  warm  day,  in  the  summer,  one  of  which  has  been  taken  out  of  a 
grass  field,  and  the  other  fed  on  hay  and  grain,  the  diff'erence  will  be 
very  soon  detected.  The  grass-fed  horse  will  perspire  profusely,  yet 
the  other  will  be  cool  and  dry.  This  propensity  to  perspire  likewise 
proves  that  the  system  of  the  former  is  replete  with  adipose  deposit,  and 
iiuids  destined  to  produce  that  substance  ;  an  unnecessary  encumbrance, 
antl  in  such  quantities  opposed  to  freedom  of  action. 

Under  an  impression  that  an  abundance  of  luxuriant  grass  wnll 
increase  the  flow  of  milk,  it  is  frequently  given  to  brood  mares,  but  if 
it  has  the  eft'ect  of  producing  relaxation,  it  is  exceedingly  prejudicial. 
A  moderate  portion  of  good  milk  is  far  preferable  to  that  wliieh  is 
weak  and  poor.  Thorough-bred  mares  are  not  unfrequently  deficient 
in  their  lacteal  secretions,  more  so  than  thost)  of  a  common  description. 
It  is  obviously  necessary  that  either  class  should  be  supplied  with  good 
and  nutritious  food  for  the  purpose  of  augmenting  it  when  insufficient, 
but  the  nature  of  the  food  requires  to  be  regulated  by  the  constitution 
of  the  individual. 

A  mistaken  notion  of  economy  frequently  induces  persons  to  turn 
their  horses  into  the  grass  fields  during  the  summer  months.  A  few 
words  may  serve  to  dispel  that  delusion.  Twenty-two  bushels  of  oats, 
allowing  one  bushel  per  week,  which  is  sufficient  for  young  stock  or 
horses  not  in  work,  from  the  ]oth  of  May  to  the  IGth  of  October,  may 
be  estimated  as  the  produce  of  a  trifle  more  than  half  an  acre  of  land. 
From  ten  to  twelve  hundred  weight  of  hay  may  be  estimated  as  the 
produce  of  another  half-acre,  although  a  ton  and  a  half  per  acre,  is  not 
more  than  an  average  crop  on  land  in  good  condition.  It  will  require 
an  acre  of  grass  land,  capable  of  producing  a  ton  and  a  half  of  hay,  to 
support  a  horse  during  the  above-named  period.  When  the  relative 
vahie  of  a  horse  which  has  been  kept  on  hay  and  grain,  is  compared 
with  that  of  one  which  has  been  grazed,  the  verdict  will  be  considerably 
ao-ainst  the  latter. 


M  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

A  simple  but  invaluable  appendage  to  the  cart-stable  is  the  nose-hag. 
In  order  that  the  lungs  of  the  horse  may  have  their  full  play,  and  espe- 
cially that  the  speed  of  the  horse  may  not  be  impeded,  an  exceedingly 
small  stomach  was  given  to  him.  It  is,  consequently,  soon  emptied  of 
food,  and  hunger,  and  languor,  and  indisposition,  and  inability  to  work, 
speedily  succeed.  At  length  food  is  set  before  him  ;  he  falls  ravenously 
upon  it ;  he  swallows  it  faster  than  his  contracted  stomach  can  digest 
it;  the  stomach  becomes  overloaded;  he  cannot,  from  the  peculiar 
construction  of  that  organ,  get  rid  of  the  load  by  vomiting,  and  the 
stomach,  or  some  of  the  vessels  of  the  brain,  becomes  ruptured,  and  the 
animal  dies.  The  farmer  attributes  this  to  an  unknown  or  accidental 
cause,  and  dreams  not  that  it  is,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases,  to  be 
traced  to  voracious  feeding  after  hard  work  and  long  fasting.  The 
nose-bag  is  a  simple  but  a  kind  contrivance,  and  an  effectual  preventive. 
No  cart-horse  on  a  journey  of  more  than  four  or  five  hours,  should  be 
suftcred  to  leave  the  farmer's  yard  Avithout  it. 

A  very  slight  inspection  of  the  animal  will  always  enable  the  owner 
to  determine  whether  he  is  too  well  fed  or  not  sufficiently  fed.  The 
size  of  the  horse,  and  the  nature  of  the  work,  and  the  season  of  the 
year,  will  make  considerable  diff*erence  in  the  quantity  and  the  quality 
of  the  food.  The  following  accounts  will  sufficiently  elucidate  the 
general  custom  : — "Mr.  Harper,  of  Bank  Hall,  Lancashire,  plows  seven 
acres  per  week,  the  year  through,  on  strong  land,  with  a  team  of  three 
horses,  and  allows  to  each  weekly  two  bushels  of  oats,  with  hay,  during 
the  winter  six  months,  and,  during  the  remainder  of  the  year,  one 
bushel  of  oats  per  week.  Mr.  EUraan,  of  Glynde,  in  Sussex,  allows  two 
bushels  of  oats,  with  pcase-haulm  or  straw,  with  but  very  little  hay, 
during  the  winter  months.  He  gives  one  bushel  of  oats  with  green 
food  during  the  summer."  There  is  very  little  difference  in  the  man- 
agement of  these  two  gentlemen,  and  that  probably  arising  from  cir- 
cumstances peculiar  to  their  respective  farms.  The  grand  principles  of 
feeding,  with  reference  to 'agricultural  horses,  are,  to  keep  the  animal 
rather  above  his  work,  to  give  him  good  and  wholesome  food,  and,  by 
the  use  of  the  nose-bag  or  other  means,  never  to  let  him  work  longer 
than  the  time  already  mentioned  without  being  baited. 

The  horse  of  quick  work  should  be  allowed  as  much  as  he  will  eat, 
care  being  taken  that  no  more  is  put  into  the  manger  than  he  will 
readily  dispose  of;  and  that  the  grain  be  consumed  before  the  hay  is 
given ;  if  the  former  be  not  eaten  up  with  an  appetite,  it  must  be  re- 
moved before  the  stable  is  shut  up.  The  quantity  actually  eaten  will 
depend  on  the  degree  of  work  and  the  natural  appetite  of  the  horse; 
but  it  may  be  averaged  at  about  sixty-six  pounds  of  chaff,  seventeen 
pounds  and  a  half  of  beans,  and  seventy-seven  pounds  of  oats  per  Aveek. 

The  2^'a(;(?/v'«7  of  the  horseis  a  very  important  but  disregarded  portion 
of  his  general  management.  The  kind  of  water  has  not  been  sufficiently 
considered.  The  difference  between  what  is  termed  hard  and  soft 
water  is  a  circumstance  of  general  observation.  The  former  contains 
certain  saline  principles  which  decompose  some  bodies,  as  appears  in 
the  curdling  of  soap,  and  prevent  the  decomposition  of  others,  as  in  the 
making  of  tea,  the  boiling  of  vegetables,  and  the  process  of  brewing.     It 


THE   nOKSE.  45 

is  natural  to  suppose  that  these  different  kinds  of  water  would  produce 
somewhat  different  effects  on  the  animal  frame  ;  and  such  is  the  fact. 
Hard  water,  freshly  drawn  from  the  well,  will  frequently  roughen  the 
coat  of  the  horse  unaccustomed  to  it,  or  cause  griping  pains,  or  materi- 
ally lessen  the  animal's  power  of  exertion.  The  racing  and  the  hunting 
groom  are  perfectly  aware  of  this ;  and  so  is  the  horse,  for  he  will  refuse 
the  purest  water  from  the  well,  if  he  can  obtain  access  to  the  running 
stream,  or  even  the  turbid  pool.  Where  there  is  the  power  of  choice, 
the  softer  w^ater  should  undoubtedly  be  preferred. 

The  temperature  of  the  water  is  of  lar  more  consequence  than  its 
hardness.  It  will  rarely  harm,  if  taken  fi'om  the  pond  or  the  running 
stream,  but  its  coldness  when  recently  drawn  from  the  well  has  often 
been  injurious;  it  has  produced  colic,  spasm,  and  even  death. 

There  is  often  considerable  prejudice  against  the  horse  being  fairly 
supplied  with  water.  It  is  supposed  to  chill  him,  to  injure  his  wind,  or 
to  incapacitate  him  for  hard  work.  It  certainly  would  do  so  if,  imme- 
diately after  drinking  his  fill,  lie  were  galloped  hard,  but  not  if  he  were 
suffered  to  quench  his  thirst  more  frequently  when  at  rest  in  the  stable. 
The  horse  that  has  free  access  to  w'ater  will  not  drink  so  much  in  the 
course  of  a  day  as  another,  who,  in  order  to  cool  his  parched  mouth, 
swallows  as  fast  as  he  can,  and  knows  not  when  to  stop. 

A  horse  may  with  perfect  safety  be  far  more  hberally  supplied  with 
water  than  he  generally  is.  An  hour  before  his  work  comniences,  he 
should  be  permitted  to  drink  a  couple  of  quarts.  A  greater  quantity 
might  probably  be  objected  to.  He  will  perform  his  task  far  more 
pleasantly  and  effectively  than  with  a  parched  mouth  and  tormenting 
thirst.  The  prejudice  both  of  the  hunting  and  the  training  groom  on 
this  point  is  cruel,  as  well  as  injurious.  The  task  or  the  journey  being 
acconiplished,  and  the  horse  having  had  his  head  and  neck  dressed,  his 
legs  and  feet  washed,  before  his  body  is  cleaned  he  should  have  his 
water.  When  dressed,  his  grain  may  be  offered  to  him,  which  he  will 
readily  take ;  but  water  should  never  be  given  immediately  before  or 
after  the  grain. 

GROOMING. — Of  this  little  need  be  said  to  the  agriculturist,  since  cus- 
tom, and  apparently  without  ill  effect,  has  allotted  so  little  of  the  comb 
and  brush  to  the  farmer's  horse.  The  animal  that  is  worked  all  day 
and  turned  out  at  night,  requires  little  more  to  be  done  to  him  than  to 
have  the  dirt  brushed  off  his  limbs.  Regular  grooming,  by  rendering 
his  skin  more  sensible  to  the  alteration  of  temperature,  and  the  inclem- 
ency of  the  weather,  would  be  prejudicial.  The  horse  that  is  alto- 
gether turned  out,  needs  no  grooming.  The  dandriff,  or  scurf,  which 
accumulates  at  the  roots  of  the  hair,  is  a  provision  of  nature  to  defend 
him  from  the  wnnd  and  the  cold. 

It  is  to  the  stabled  horse,  highly  fed,  and  little  or  irregularly  worked, 
that  grooming  is  of  so  much  consequence.  Good  rubbing  with  the 
brush,  or  the  curry-comb,  opens  the  pores  of  the  skin,  circulates  the 
blood  to  the  extremities  of  the  body,  produces  free  and  healthy  per- 
spiration, and  stands  in  the  room  of  exercise.  No  horse  will  carry  a 
fine  coat  without  either  unnatural  heat  or  dressing.  They  both  effect 
the  same  purpose ;  they  both  increase  the  insensible  persiration ;  but 


4:6  DOMESTIC    AlsIIvIALS. 

the  first  does  it  at  the  expense  of  health  and  strength,  while  the  second, 
at  the  same  time  that  it  produces  a  glow  on  the  skin,  and  a  determina- 
tion of  blood  to  it,  rouses  all  the  energies  of  the  frame.  It  would  be 
w^ell  for  the  proprietor  of  the  horse  if  he  were  to  insist — and  to  see 
that  his  orders  are  really  obeyed — that  the  fine  coat  in  which  he  and 
his  groom  so  much  delight,  is  produced  by  honest  rubbing,  and  not  by 
a  heated  stable  and  thick  clothing,  and  most  of  all,  not  by  stimulating 
or  injurious  spices.  The  horse  should  be  regularly  dressed  ever}'-  day, 
in  addition  to  the  grooming  that  is  necessary  after  work. 

When  the  weather  will  permit  the  horse  to  be  taken  out,  he  should 
never  be  groomed  in  the  stable,  unless  he  is  an  animal  of  peculiar 
value,  or  "placed  for  a  time  under  peculiar  circumstances.  Without 
dwelling  on  the  want  of  cleanliness,  when  the  scurf  and  dust  that  are 
brushed  from  the  horse  lodge  in  his  manger,  and  mingle  with  his  food, 
experience  teaches,  that  if  the  cold  is  not  too  great,  the  animal  is 
braced  and  invigorated  to  a  degree  that  cannot  be  attained  in  the  sta- 
ble, from  being  dressed  in  the  open  air.  There  is  no  necessity,  how- 
ever, for  half  the  punishment  which  many  a  groom  inflicts  upon  the 
horse  in  the  act  of  di-essing  ;  and  particularly  on  one  whose  skin  is  thin 
and  sensible.  The  curry-comb  should  at  all  times  be  lightly  applied. 
With  many  horses,  its  use  maybe  almost  dispensed  with;  and  even  the 
brush  needs  not  to  be  so  hard,  nor  the  points  of  the  bristles  so  irregu- 
lar, as  they  often  are.  A  soft  brush,  with  a  little  more  weight  of  the 
hand,  will  be  equally  effectual,  and  a  great  deal  more  pleasant  to  the 
horse.  A  hair-cloth,  while  it  will  seldom  irritate  and  tease,  will  be  al- 
most sufficient  with  horses  that  have  a  thin  skin,  and  that  have  not 
been  neglected.  After  all,  it  is  no  slight  task  to  dress  a  horse  as  it 
ouf>-ht  to  be  done.  It  occupies  no  little  time,  and  demands  considerable 
patience,  as  well  as  dexterity. 

Exercise. — Our  observations  on  this  important  branch  of  stable  man- 
agement must  have  only  a  slight  reference  to  the  agricultural  horse, 
liis  work  is  usually  regular,  and  not  exhausting.  He  is  neither  predis- 
posed to  disease  by  idleness  nor  worn  out  by  excessive  exertion.  He, 
like  his  master,  has  enough  to  do  to  keep  him  in  health,  and  not  enough 
to  distress  or  injure  him;  on  the  contrary,  the  regularity  of  his  work 
prolongs  life  to  an  extent  rarely  witnessed  in  the  stable  of  the  gentle- 
man. Our  remarks  on  exercise,  then,  must  have  a  general  bearing,  or 
have  principal  reference  to  those  persons  who  are  in  the  middle  stations 
of  life,  and  who  contrive  to  keep  a  horse  for  business  or  pleasure,  but 
cannot  afford  to  maintain  a  servant  for  the  express  purpose  of  looking 
after  it.  The  first  rule  we  would  lay  down  is,  that  every  horse  should 
have  daily  exercise.  The  animal  that,  with  the  usual  stable  feeding, 
stands  idle  for  three  or  four  days,  as  is  the  case  in  many  establishments, 
must  suffer.  He  is  predisposed  to  fever,  or  to  grease,  or  most  of  all, 
diseases  of  the  foot ;  and  if,  after  three  or  four  days  of  inactivity,  he  is 
ridden  far  and  fjist,  he  is  almost  sure  to  have  inflammation  of  the  lungs 
or  of  the  feet. 

A  gentleman's  or  a  tradesman's  horse  suffers  a  great  deal  more  from 
idleness  than  he  does  from  work.  A  stable-fed  horse  should  have  two 
hours'  exercise  every  day,  if  he  is  to  be  kept  free  from  disease.   Nothing 


THE   IIOKSE.  47 

of  cxtraorclinary,  or  even  of  ordinary  labor,  can  be  effected  on  the  road 
or  in  the  tield  without  sufiicicnt  and  regular  exercise.  It  is  this  alone 
Avhich  can  give  energy  to  the  system,  or  develop  the  powers  of  any 
animal. 

The  exercised  horse  will  discharge  his  task,  and  sometimes  a  severe 
one,  with  ease  and  pleasure ;  while  the  idle  and  neglected  one  will  be 
fatigued  ere  half  his  labor  is  accomplished;  and,  if  he  is  pushed  a  little 
too  far,  dangerous  inflammation  will  ensue.  How  often,  nevertheless, 
does  it  happen,  that  the  hoise  which  has  stood  inactive  in  the  stable 
three  or  four  days,  is  ridden  or  driven  thirty  or  forty  miles  in  the  course 
of  a  single  day  !  This  rest  is  often  purposely  given  to  prepare  for  extra 
exertion — to  lay  in  a  stock  of  strength  for  the  performance  of  the  task 
required  of  him ;  and  then  the  owner  is  surprised  and  dissatisfied  if  the 
animal  is  fairly  knocked  up,  or  possibly  becomes  seriously  ill.  Nothing 
is  so  common  and  so  preposterous  as  for  a  person  to  buy  a  horse  from  a 
dealer's  stable,  where  he  has  been  idly  fattened  for  sale  for  many  a  day, 
and  immediately  to  give  him  a  long  run  after  the  hounds,  and  then  to 
complain  bitterl}'-,  and  think  that  he  has  been  imposed  upon,  if  the 
animal  is  exhausted  before  the  end  of  the  chase,  or  is  compelled  to  be 
led  home  suffering  from  violent  inflammation.  Regular  and  gradually- 
increasing  exercise  would  have  made  the  same  horse  appear  a  treasure  to 
his  owner. 

Exercise  should  be  somewhat  proportioned  to  the  age  of  the  horse. 
A  young  horse  requires  more  than  an  old  one.  Nature  has  given  to 
young  animals  of  every  kind  a  disposition  to  activity  ;  but  the  exercise 
must  not  be  violent.  A  2:reat  deal  depends  upon  the  manner  in  which 
it  is  given.  To  preserve  the  temper,  and  to  promote  health,  it  should 
be  moderate,  at  least  at  the  beginning  and  the  termination.  The  rapid 
trot,  or  even  the  gallop,  may  be  resorted  to  in  the  middle  of  the  exercise, 
but  the  horse  should  be  brought  in  cool. 

Management  of  the  Feet. — This  is  the  only  division  of  stable  manage- 
ment that  remains  to  be  considered,  and  one  sadly  neglected  by  the 
carter  and  groom.  The  feet  should  be  carefully  examined  every  morn- 
ing, for  the  shoes  may  be  loose,  and  the  horse  would  have  been  stopped 
in  the  middle  of  his  work;  or  the  clenches  may  be  raised,  and  endanger 
the  wounding  of  his  legs ;  or  the  shoe  may  begin  to  press  upon  the 
sole  or  the  heel,  and  bruises  of  the  sole  or  corn  may  be  the  result ;  and, 
the  horse  having  stood  so  long  in  the  stable,  every  little  increase  of  heat 
in  the  foot,  or  lameness,  will  be  more  readily  detected,  and  serious  dis- 
ease may  often  be  prevented. 

When  the  horse  comes  in  at  night,  and  after  the  harness  has  been 
taken  off  and  stowed  aw.-^y,  the  heels  should  be  well  brushed  out.  Hand- 
rubbing  will  be  preferable  to  washing,  especially  in  the  agricultural 
horse,  whose  heels,  covered  with  long  hair,  can  scarcely  be  dried  again. 
If  the  dirt  is  suffered  to  accumulate  in  that  long  hair,  the  heels  will  be- 
come sore,  and  grease  will  follow ;  and  if  the  heels  are  w^ashed,  and 
particularly  during  the  winter,  grease  will  result  from  the  coldness  oc- 
casioned by  the  slow  evaporation  of  the  moisture.  The  feet  should  be 
stopped — even  the  feet  of  the  farmer's  horse — if  he  remains  in  the 
stable.     Very  little  clay  should  be  used  in  the  stopping,  for  it  will  get 


48  do:mestic  aximals. 

hard  and  press  upon  tlie  sole.  Cow-dnng  is  the  best  stopping  to  pre- 
serve the  feet  cool  and  elastic ;  but  before  the  stopping  is  applied,  the 
picker  should  be  run  round  the  whole  of  the  foot,  between  the  shoe  and 
the  sole,  in  order  to  detect  any  stone  that  may  have  insinuated  itself 
there,  or  a  wound  on  any  other  part  of  the  sole. 

SlIliEING,  etc. — Far  more  than  is  generally  imagined,  do  the  comfort 
and  health  of  the  horse,  and  the  safety  of  his  rider,  depend  upon  shoeing. 

In  taking  off  the  old  shoe,  the  clenches  of  the  nails  should  always  be 
carefully  raised  or  filed  off;  and,  where  the  foot  is  tender,  or  the  horse 
is  to  be  examined  for  lameness,  each  nail  should  be  partly  punched  out. 

The  edges  of  the  crust  are  then  to  be  rasped  to  detect  whether  an}' 
stubs  remain  in  the  nail-holes,  and  to  remove  the  crust,  into  which  dust 
and  gravel  have  insinuated  themselves. 

Next  comes  the  important  process  of  paring  out,  with  regard  to  which 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  lay  down  any  specific  rules.  This,  however, 
is  undoubted,  that  far  more  injury  has  been  done  by  the  neglect  of 
paring,  than  by  carrying  it  to  too  great  an  extent.  The  act  of  paring  is 
a  work  of  much  more  labor  than  the  proprietor  of  the  horse  often 
imagines.  The  smith,  except  he  is  overlooked,  will  frequently  give  him- 
self as  little  trouble  about  it  as  he  can ;  and  that  portion  of  horn 
■which,  in  the  unshod  foot,  would  be  worn  away  by  contact  with  the 
ground,  is  suff'ered  to  accumulate  month  after  month,  until  the  elasticity 
of  the  sole  is  destroyed,  and  it  can  no  longer  descend,  and  its  other 
functions  are  impeded,  and  foundation  is  laid  for  corn,  and  contraction, 
and  navicular  disease,  and  inflammation.  That  portion  of  horn  should 
be  left  on  the  foot  which  will  defend  the  internal  parts  from  being 
bruised,  and  yet  suffer  the  external  sole  to  descend,  llow  is  this  to  be 
ascertained  ?  The  strong  pressure  of  the  thumb  of  the  smith  will  be 
the  best  guide.  The  buttress,  that  most  destructive  of  all  instruments, 
being,  except  on  very  particular  occasions,  banished  from  every  respect- 
able forge,  the  smith  sets  to  work  with  his  drawing  knife,  and  removes 
the  growth  of  horn,  until  the  sole  will  yield,  although  in  the  slightest 
possible  degree,  to  the  strong  pressure  of  his  thumb.  The  proper  thick- 
ness of  horn  will  then  remain. 

The  quantity  of  horn  to  be  removed,  in  order  to  leave  the  proper 
degree  of  thickness,  will  vary  with  different  feet.  From  the  strong  foot 
a  great  deal  must  be  taken.  From  the  concave  foot  the  horn  may  be 
removed  until  the  sole  will  yield  to  a  moderate  pressure.  From  the  fiat 
foot  little  needs  be  pared;  while  the  pumiced  foot  should  be  deprived 
of  nothing  but  the  ragged  parts. 

The  crust  should  be  reduced  to  a  perfect  level  all  round,  but  left  a 
little  higher  than  the  sole,  or  the  sole  will  be  bruised  by  its  pressure  on 
the  edge  of  the  seating. 

The  heels  will  require  considerable  attention.  From  the  stress  wliich 
is  thrown  on  the  inner  heel,  and  from  the  weakness  of  the  quarter  there, 
the  horn  usually  wears  away  considerably  faster  than  it  would  on  the 
outer  one,  and  if  an  equal  portion  of  horn  were  pared  from  it,  it  would 
be  left  lower  than  the  outer  heel.  The  smith  should  therefore  accom- 
modate his  paring  to  the  comparative  wear  of  the  heels,  and  be  exceed- 
ingly careful  to  leave  them  precisely  level. 


TIIE   HOKSE.  49 

The  portion  of  the  heels  between  the  inflection  of  the  bar  and  the 
frog  should  scarcely  be  touched — at  leasts  the  ragged  and  detached 
parts  alone  should  be  cut  away.  The  foot  may  not  look  so  fair  and 
open,  but  it  will  last  longer  without  contraction. 

The  bar,  likewise,  should  be  left  fully  prominent,  not  only  at  its  first 
inflection,  but  as  it  runs  down  the  side  of  the  frog.  The  heel  of  the 
shoe  is  designed  to  rest  partly  on  the  heel  of  the  foot  and  partly  on  the 
bar,  for  reasons  that  have  been  already  stated.  If  the  bar  is  weak,  the 
growth  of  it  should  be  encouraged ;  and  it  should  be  scarcely  touched 
when  the  horse  is  shod,  unless  it  has  attained  a  level  with  the  crust. 

It  will  also  be  apparent,  that  the  horn  between  the  crust  and  the  bar 
should  be  carefully  pared  out.  Every  horseman  has  observed  the  relief 
which  is  given  to  the  animal  lame  with  corns,  when  this  angle  is  w^ell 
thinned. 

The  degree  of  paring  to  which  the  frog  must  be  subjected,  will 
depend  on  its  prominence,  and  on  the  shape  of  the  foot.  The  principle 
has  already  been  stated,  that  it  must  be  left  so  far  projecting  and  prom- 
inent, that  it  shall  be  just  within  and  above  the  lower  surface  of  the 
shoe  ;  it  will  then  descend  with  the  sole  suflSciently  to  discharge  the 
functions  that  have  been  attributed  to  it.  If  it  is  lower,  it  will  be 
bruised  and  injured  ;  if  it  is  higher,  it  cannot  come  in  contact  with  the 
ground,  and  thus  be  enabled  to  do  its  duty.  The  ragged  parts  must  be 
removed,  and  especially  those  occasioned  by  thrush,  but  the  degree  of 
paring  must  depend  entirely  on  the  principle  just  stated. 

Putting  on  the  Shoe. — The  shoe  should  accurately  fit  the  size  of  the 
foot ;  if  too  small,  and  the  foot  is  rasped  down  to  fit  the  shoe,  the  crust 
is  thinned  where  it  receives  the  nail,  and  the  danger  of  puncture,  and 
of  pressure  upon  the  sole,  is  increased ;  and  a  foot  so  artificially  dimin- 
ished in  size,  will  soon  grow  over  the  shoe,  to  the  hazard  of  considera- 
ble or  permanent  lameness. 

The  shoe  should  be  properly  beveled  off",  that  the  dirt,  gravel,  etc., 
which  gets  between  it  and  the  foot  may  be  shaken  out. 

The  web  of  the  shoe  is  likewise  of  that  thickness,  that  when  the  foot 
is  properly  pared,  the  prominent  part  of  the  frog  shall  lie  just  within 
and  above  its  ground  surface,  so  that  in  the  descent  of  the  sole,  the 
frog  shall  come  sufficiently  on  the  ground  to  enable  it  to  act  as  a  wedge 
and  to  expand  the  quarters,  while  it  is  defended  from  the  wear  and  in- 
jury it  would  receive,  if  it  came  on  the  ground  with  the  first  and  full 
shock  of  the  weight. 

The  nail-holes  are,  on  the  ground  side,  placed  as  near  the  outer  edge 
of  the  shoe  as  they  can  safely  be,  and  brought  out  near  the  inner  edge 
of  the  seating.  The  nails  thus  take  a  direction  inward,  resembling 
that  of  the  crust  itself,  and  have  firmer  hold,  and  the  weight  of  the 
horse  being  thrown  on  a  flat  surface,  contraction  is  not  so  likely  to  be 
produced. 

It  is  expedient  not  only  that  the  foot  and  ground  surfoce  of  the  shoe 
should  be  most  accurately  level,  but  that  the  crust  should  be  exactly 
smoothed  and  fitted  to  the  shoe.  Much  skill  and  time  are  necessary  to 
do  this  perfectly  with  the  drawing-knife.  The  smith  has  adopted  a 
method  of  more  quickly  and  more  accurately  adapting  the  shoe  to  the 
8 


50  DOMESTIC   AXESIALS. 

foot.  He  pares  the  crnst  as  level  as  he  can,  and  then  he  brings  the 
shoe  to  a  heat  soineAvliat  below  a  red  heat,  and  applies  it  to  the  foot, 
aiid  detects  any  little  elevations  bv  the  deeper  color  of  the  burned 
horn.  This  practice  has  been  much  inveig'hed  against;  bnt  it  is  the 
abuse,  and  not  the  use  of  the  thing  which  is  to  be  condemned.  If  the 
shoe  is  not  too  hot,  nor  jield  too  long  on  the  foot,  an  accuracy  of  ad- 
justment is  thus  obtained,  which  the  knife  would  be  long  in  producing, 
or  would  not  produce  at  all.  ]t^  however,  the  shoe  is  made  to  burn  its 
way  to  its  seat,  with  little  or  no  previous  preparation  of  the  foot,  the 
heat  must  be  injurious  both  to  the  sensible  and  insensible  parts  of  the 
foot. 

The  heels  of  the  shoe  should  be  examined  as  to  their  proper  width. 
Whatever  is  the  custom  of  shoeing  the  horses  of  dealers,  and  the  too 
prevalent  practice  in  the  metropolis  of  giving  the  foot  an  open  appear- 
ance, although  the  postei-ior  pait  of  it  is  thereby  exposed  to  injury, 
nothing  is  more  certain  than  that,  in  the  horse  destined  for  road  work, 
the  heels,  and  particularly  the  s^at  of  corn,  can  scarcely  be  too  well 
covered.  Part  of  the  shoe  projecting  externally  can  be  of  no  possible 
good,  but  will  prove  an  occasional  source  of  mischief,  and  especially  in 
a  heavy  country.  A  shoe,  the  web  of  which  projects  inward  as  far  as  it 
can  without  touching  the  frog,  affords  protection  to  the  angle  between 
the  bars  and  the  crust. 

Of  the  manner  of  attaching  the.  shoe  to  the  foot  the  owner  can 
scarcely  be  a  competent  judge;  he  can  only  take  care  that  the  shoe 
itself  shall  not  be  heavier  than  the  work  requires — that,  for  work  a  lit- 
tle hard  the  shoe  shall  still  be  light,  with  a  bit  of  steel  welded  into  the 
toe — that  the  nails  shall  be  as  small,  and  as  few,  and  as  far  from  the 
heels  as  may  be  consistent  with  the  security  of  the  shoe  ;  and  that,  for 
light  work  at  least,  the  shoe  shall  not  be  driven  on  so  closely  and  firm- 
ly as  is  often  done,  nor  the  points  of  the  nails  be  brought  out  so  high 
np  as  is  generally  practiced. 

Calkins.* — There  are  few  cases  in  which  the  use  of  calkins  (a  turn- 
ing np  or  elevation  of  the  heel)  can  be  admissible  in  the  fore-fjet,  ex- 
cept in  frosty  weather,  when  it  may  in  some  degree  prevent  unpleasant 
or  dangerous  slipping.  If,  however,  calkins  are  used,  they  should  be 
placed  on  both  sides.  If  the  outer  heel  only  is  raised  with  the  calkin, 
as  is  too  often  the  case,  the  weight  cannot  be  thrown  evenly  on  the  foot, 
and  nndue  straining  and  injury  of  some  part  of  the  foot  or  of  the  leg 
must  be  the  necessary  consequence. 

Clips. — These  are  portions  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  shoe,  hammered 
out,  and  turned  up  so  as  to  embrace  the  lower  part  of  the  crust  and  which 
is  usually  pared  out  a  little,  in  order  to  receive  the  clip.  They  are  very 
useful,  as  more  securely  attaching  the  shoe  to  the  foot,  and  relieving 
the  crust  from  that  stress  upon  the  nails  which  would  otherwise  be  in- 
jurious. A  clip  at  the  toe  is  almost  necessary  in  every  draught-horse, 
and  absolutely  so  in  the  horse  of  heavy  draught,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  shoe  from  being  loosened  or  torn  off  by  the  pressure  which  is 
thrown  upon  the  toe  in  the  act  of  drawing.     A  clip  on  the  outside  of 

*  Vulgarly  "corks." 


TilE    IIOESE.  51 

each  shoe,  at  the  bcgiiniing  of  the  quarters,  will  give  security  to  it. 
Clips  are  likewise  necessary  on  the  shoes  of  all  heavy  horses,  and  of  all 
others  who  are  disposed  to  stamp,  or  violently  paw  with  their  feet,  and 
thus  incur  the  danger  of  displacing  the  shoe  ;  but  they  are  evils,  inas- 
much as  they  press  upon  the  crust  as  it  grows  down,  and  they  sliould 
only  be  used  when  circumstances  absolutely  require  them.  In  the  hunt- 
er's shoe  they  are  not  required  at  the  sides.  One  at  the  toe  is  suffi- 
cient. 

The  Hinder  Shoe, — In  forming  the  hinder  shoes,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  the  hind  limbs  are  the  principal  instruments  in  progression, 
and  that  in  ewery  act  of  progression,  except  the  walk,  the  toe  is  the 
point  on  which  the  v.iiole  frame  of  the  animal  turns,  and  from  which  it 
is  propelled.  This  part,  then,  should  be  strengthened  as  much  as  pos- 
sible; and  therefore  the  hinder  shoes  are  made  broader  at  the  toe  than 
the  fore  ones.  Another  good  effect  is  produced  by  this — that,  the  hinder 
foot  being  shortened,  there  is  less  danger  of  overreaching,  forging,  or 
clinking,  and  especially  if  the  shoe  is  wider  on  the  foot  surface  than  on 
the  ground  one.  The  shoe  is  thus  made  to  slope  inward,  and  is  a  little 
within  the  toe  of  the  crust. 

The  shape  of  the  hinder  foot  is  somewhat  different  from  that  of  the 
fore  foot.  It  is  straighter  in  the  quarters,  and  the  shoe  must  have  the 
same  form.  For  carriage  and  draught-horses  generally,  calkins  may  be 
put  on  the  heels,  because  the  animal  w-ill  be  thus  enabled  to  dig  his  toe 
more  firmly  into  the  ground,  and  urge  himself  forward,  and  throw  his 
weip'ht  into  the  collar  with  o-reater  advanta^re  :  but  the  calkins  must  not 
be  too  high,  and  they  must  be  of  an  equal  height  on  each  heel,  other- 
wise, as  has  been  stated  w^ith  regard  to  the  fore  feet,  the  w^eight  will  not 
be  fairly  distributed  over  the  foot,  and  some  part  of  the  foot  or  the  leg 
will  materially  suffer.  The  nails  in  the  hinder  shoe  may  be  placed 
nearer  to  the  heel  than  in  the  fore  shoe,  because,  from  the  comparative- 
ly little  weight  and  concussion  thrown  on  the  hinder  feet,  there  is  not 
so  much  danger  of  contraction. 

Different  Kinds  of  Shoes. — The  shoe  must  vary  in  substance  and  weight 
with  the  kind  of  foot,  and  the  nature  of  the  work.  A  weak  foot  should 
never  wear  a  heavy  shoe,  nor  any  foot  a  shoe  that  will  last  longer  than 
a  month.  Here,  perhaps,  we  may  be  permitted  to  caution  the  horse- 
proprietor  against  having  his  cattle  shod  by  contract,  unless  he  binds 
his  farrier  or  veterinary  surgeon  to  remove  the  shoes-  once  at  least  in 
every  month ;  for,  if  the  contractor,  by  a  heavy  shoe,  and  a  little  steel, 
can  cause  five  or  six  weeks  to  intervene  between  the  shoeings,  he  will 
do  so,  although  the  feet  of  the  horse  must  necessarily  suffer.  The  shoe 
should  never  be  heavier  than  the  work  requires,  for  an  ounce  or  two  in 
the  weight  of  the  shoe  will  sadly  tell  at  the  end  of  a  hard  day's  work. 
This  is  acknowledged  in  the  hunting-shoe,  which  is  narrower  and  lighter 
than  that  of  the  hackney,  although  the  foot  of  the  hackney  is  smaller 
than  that  of  the  hunter.  It  is  more  decidedly  acknowledged  in  the 
racer,  wdio  wears  a  shoe  only  sufficiently  thick  to  prevent  it  from  bend- 
ing when  it  is  used. 

The  Concave-Seated  Shoe. — An  illustration  is  subjoined  of  a  shoe  which 
is  useful  and  valuable  for  general  purposes.     It  is  employed  in  many  of 


£2 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


THE  CONCATE-SEATED   SHOE. 


our  best  forges,  and  promises  gradnallv  to  supersede  the  flat  and  the 
simple  concave  shoe,  although  it  must,  in  many  respects,  yield  to  the 
unilateral  shoe. 

It  presents  a  perfectly  flat  surface  to  the  ground,  in  order  to  give  as 
many  points  of  bearing  as  possible,  except  that,  on  the  outer  edge,  there 
is  a  groove  or  fuller,  in  which  the  nail-holes  arc  punched,  so  that,  sink- 
ing into  the  fuller,  their  heads  project  but  a  little  way,  and  are  soon 
worn  down  level  with  the  shoe. 

The  web  of  this  shoe  is  of  the  same  thickness  throughout,  from  the 
toe  to  the  heel;  and  it  is  sufficiently  w^ide  to  guard  the  sole  from 
bruises,  and,  as  much  so  as  the  frog  will  permit,  to  cover  the  seat  of 
corn. 

On  the  foot  side  it  is  seated.  The  outer  part  of  it  is  accurately  flat, 
and  of  the  wndth  of  the  crust,  and  designed  to  support  the  crust,  for  by 
it  the  whole  weight  of  the  horse  is  sustained. 

Toward  the  heel  this  flattened  part  is  wider,  and  occupies  the  whole 
breadth  of  the  web,  in  order  to  support  the  heel  of  the  crust  and  its 
reflected  part,  the  bar;  thus,  while  it  defends  the  horn  included  within 
this  angle  from  injury,  it  gives  that  equal  pressure  from  the  bar  and  the 
crust  which  is  the  best  preventive  against  corns,  and  a  powerful  obstacle 
to  contraction. 

It  is  fastened  to  the  foot  by  nine  nails — five  on  the  outside,  and  four 
on  the  inner  side  of  the  shoe ;  those  on  the  outside  extending  a  little 
farther  down  toward  the  heel,  because  the  outside  heel  is  thicker  and 
stronger,  and  there  is  more  nail-hold  ;  the  last  nail  on  the  inner  quarter 
being  farther  from  the  heel,  on  account  of  the  weakness  of  that  quarter. 
For  feet  not  too  large,  and  where  moderate  work  only  is  required  from 


THE   HORSE. 


63 


tbe  horse,  four  nails  on  tlie  outside  and  three  on  the  inside  will  be  suffi- 
cient; and  the  last  nail,  being  far  from  the  heels,  will  allow  more  ex- 
pansion there. 

The  inside  part  of  the  web  is  beveled  off,  or  rendered  concave,  that 
it  may  not  press  upon  the  sole.  Notwithstanding  the  shoe,  the  sole  does, 
although  to  a  very  inconsiderable  extent,  descend  when  the  foot  of  the 
horse  is  put  on  the  ground.  It  is  unable  to  bear  constant  or  even  oc- 
casional pressure,  and  if  it  came  in  contact  with  the  shoe,  the  sensible 
sole  between  it  and  the  coffin-bone  would  be  bruised,  and  lameness  would 
ensue.  Many  of  our  horses,  from  too  early  and  undue  work,  have  the 
natural  concave  sole  flattened,  and  the  disposition  to  descend,  and  the 
degree  of  descent,  are  thereby  increased.  The  concave  shoe  prevents, 
even  in  this  case,  the  possibility  of  much  injury,  because  the  sole  can 
never  descend  in  the  degree  in  which  the  shoe  is  or  may  be  beveled.  A 
shoe  beveled  still  farther  is  necessary  to  protect  the  projecting  or  pum- 
iced foot. 


THE   UNILATERAL  SHOE. 

The  Unilateral  or  One-Side  Nailed  Shoe.— This  is  a  material  improve- 
ment in  the  art  of  shoeing,  for  which  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Turner. 

What  was  the  state  of  the  foot  of  the  horse  a  few  years  ago  ?  An  un- 
yielding iron  hoof  was  attached  to  it  by  four  nails  in  each  quarter,  and 
the  consequence  was,  that  in  nine  cases  out  often  the  foot  underwent  a 
very'  considerable  alteration  in  its  form  and  in  its  usefulness.  Before  it 
had  attained  its  full  development — before  the  animal  was  five  years  old, 
there  was,  in  a  great  many  cases,  an  evident  contraction  of  the  hoof. 
There  was  an  alteration  in  the  manner  of  going.  The  step  was  short- 
ened, the  sole  was  hollowed,  the  frog  was  diseased,  the  general  elasticity 
of  the  foot  was  destroyed — there  was  a  disorganization  of  the  whole 
liorny  cavity,  and  the  value  of  the  horse  was  materially  diminished. 
AVhat  was  the  grand  cause  of  tliis  ?  It  was  the  restraint  of  the  shoe. 
The  firm  attachment  of  it  to  the  foot  by  nails  in  each  quarter,  and  the 
consequent  strain  to  which  the  quarters  and  every  part  of  the  foot  were 
exposed,  produced  a  necessary   tendency   to  contraction,  from  which 

36 


54  DOMESTIC   AXIMALS. 

sprang  almost  all  the  maladies  to  whicli  the  foot  of  the  horse  is  sub- 
ject. 

The  unilateral  shoe  has  this  great  advantage  :  it  is  identified  with 
the  grand  principle  of  the  expansibility  of  the  horse's  foot,  and  of  re- 
moving or  preventing  the  worst  ailments  to  which  the  foot  of  the 
horse  is  liable.  It  can  be  truly  stated  of  this  shoe,  that  while  it  affords 
to  the  whole  organ  an  iron  defense  equal  to  the  common  shoe,  it  per- 
mits, what  the  common  shoe  never  did  or  can  do,  the  perfect  liberty  of 
the  foot.  We  are  enabled  to  present  our  readers  with  the  last  improve- 
ment of  the  unilateral  shoe. 

The  preceding  cut  gives  a  view  of  the  outer  side  of  the  off  or  right 
unilateral  shoe.  The  respective  situations  of  the  five  nails  will  be  ob- 
served ;  the  distance  of  the  last  from  the  heel,  and  the  proper  situations 
at  which  they  emerge  from  the  crust.  The  two  clips  will  hkewise  be 
seen — one  in  the  front  of  the  foot,  and  the  other  on  the  side  between  the 
last  and  second  nail. 


INNER   SIDE   OF  TJNILATEKAL  SHOE. 


This  cut  gives  a  view  of  the  inner  side  of  the  unilateral  shoe.  The 
two  nails  near  the  toe  are  in  the  situation  in  which  Mr.  Turner  directs 
that  they  should  be  placed,  and  behind  them  is  no  other  attachment, 
between  the  shoe  and  the  crust.  The  portion  of  the  crust  which  is 
rasped  off  from  the  inner  surface  of  the  shoe,  is  now,  we  believe,  not 
often  removed  from  the  side  of  the  foot;  it  has  an  unpleasant  appear- 
ance, and  the  rasping  is  somewhat  unnecessary.  The  heel  of  this  shoe 
exhibits  the  method  which  Mr.  Turner  has  adopted,  and  with  con- 
siderable success,  for  the  cure  of  corns  ;  he  cuts  away  a  portion  of  the 
ground  surface  at  the  heel,  and  injurious  compression  or  concussion  is 
rendered  in  a  manner  impossible. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  this  one-sided  nailing  has  been  exceed- 
ingly useful.  It  has,  in  many  a  case  that  threatened  a  serious  termina- 
tion, restored  the  elasticity  of  the  foot,  and  enabled  il  to  discharge  its 
natural  functions.  It  has  also  restored  to  the  foot,  even  in  bad  cases,  a 
great  deal  of  its  natural  formation,  and  enabled  the  horse  to  discharge 


THE    HOKSK.  55 

his  duty  with  more  ease  and  pleasure  to  himself,  and  greater  security  to 
his  rider. 

The  Bar-Shoe. — A  bar-shoe  is  often  exceedingly  useful.  It  is  the  con- 
tinuation of  tlie  common  shoe  round  the  heels,  and  by  means  of  it  the 
pressure  maybe  taken  off  from  some  tender  part  of  the  foot,  and  thrown 
on  another  which -is  better  able  to  bear  it,  or  more  widely  and  equally 
diffused  over  the  whole  foot.  It  is  principally  resorted  to  in  cases  of 
corn,  the  seat  of  which  it  perfectly  covers — in  pumiced  feet,  the  soles 
of  which  may  be  thus  elevated  above  the  ground  and  secured  from 
pressure — in  sand-crack,  when  the  pressure  may  be  removed  from  the 
fissure,  and  thrown  on  either  side  of  it,  and  in  thrushes,  wdien  the  frog 
is  tender,  or  is  become  cankered,  and  requires  to  be  frequently  dressed, 
and  the  dressing  can  by  this  means  alone  be  retained.  In  these  cases 
the  bar-shoe  is  an  excellent  contriv^ance,  if  worn  only  for  one  or  two 
shoeings,  or  as  long  as  the  disease  requires  it  to  be  worn ;  but  it  must 
be  left  off  as  soon  as  it  can  be  dispensed  with.  If  it  is  used  for  the  pro- 
tection of  a  diseased  foot,  however  it  may  be  chambered  and  laid  off 
the  frog,  it  will  soon  become  flattened  upon  it;  or  if  the  pressure  of  it 
is  thrown  on  the  frog  in  order  to  relieve  the  sand-crack  or  the  corn, 
that  frog  must  be  very  strong  and  healthy  which  can  long  bear  the 
great  and  continued  pressure.  More  mischief  is  often  produced  in  the 
frog  than  previously  existed  in  the  part  that  was  relieved.  It  will  be 
plain  that  in  the  use  of  the  bar-shoe  for  corn  or  sand-crack,  the  crust 
and  the  frog  should  be  precisely  on  a  level  ;  the  bar  also  should  be  the 
widest  part  of  the  shoe,  in  order  to  afford  as  extended  bearing  as  pos- 
sible on  the  frog,  and  therefore  less  likely  to  be  injurious.  Bar-shoes 
are  evidently  not  safe  in  frosty  weather.  They  are  never  safe  when 
much  speed  is  required  from  the  horse,  and  they  are  apt  to  be  wrenched 
off  in  a  heavy,  clayey  country. 

Tips. — Tips  are  short  shoes  reaching  only  half  round  the  foot,  and 
worn  while  the  horse  is  at  grass,  in  oixler  to  prevent  the  crust 
being  torn  by  the  occasional  hardness  of  the  ground  or  the  pawing  of 
the  animal.  The  quarters  at  the  same  time  being  free,  the  foot  dis- 
posed to  contract  has  a  chance  of  expanding  and  regaining  its  natural 
shape. 

The  Expanding  Shoe.— Our  subject  would  not  be  complete  if  we  did 
not  describe  the  supposed  expanding  shoe,  although  it  is  now  almost  en- 
tirely out  of  use.  It  is  either  seated  or  concave  like  the  common  shoe, 
with  a  joint  at  the  toe,  by  which  the  natural  expansion  of  the  foot  is 
said  to  be  permitted,  and  the  injurious  consequences  of  shoeing  pre- 
vented. There  is,  however,  this  radical  defect  in  the  jointed  shoe,  that 
the  nails  occupy  the  same  situation  as  in  the  common  shoe,  and  prevent 
as  they  do  the  gradual  expansion  of  the  sides  and  quarters,  and  allow 
only  of  the  hinge-like  motion  at  the  toe.  It  is  a  most  imperfect  accom- 
modation of  the  expansion  of  the  foot  to  the  action  of  its  internal  parts, 
and  even  this  accommodation  is  afforded  in  the  slightest  possible  degree, 
if  it  is  afforded  at  all.  Either  the  nails  fix  the  sides  and  quarters  as  in 
the  common  shoe,  and  then  the  joint  at  the  toe  is  useless;  or  if  that 
joint  merely  opens  like  a  hinge,  the  nail-holes  near  the  toe  can  no 
]•  nger  correspond  with  those  in  the  quarters,  which  are  unequally  ex- 


56  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

panding  at  every  point.  There  will  be  more  stress  on  the  crust  at  these 
holes,  which  will  not  only  enlarge  them  and  destroy  the  fixed  attach- 
ment of  the  shoe  to  the  hoof,  but  often  tear  away  portions  of  the  crust. 
This  shoe,  in  order  to  answer  the  intended  purpose,  should  consist  of 
many  joints,  running  along  the  sides  and  quarters,  which  would  make  it 
too  complicated  and  expensive  and  frail  for  general  use. 

While  the  shoe  is  to  be  attached  to  the  foot  by  nails,  we  must  be  con- 
tent with  the  concave-seated  or  unilateral  one,  taking  care  to  place  the 
nail-holes  as  far  from  the  heels,  and  particularly  from  the  inner  heel,  as 
the  state  of  the  foot  and  the  nature  of  the  work  will  admit ;  and  where 
the  country  is  not  too  heavy  nor  the  work  too  severe,  omitting  all  but 
two  on  the  inner  side  of  the  foot. 

Felt  or  Leather  Soles. — When  the  foot  is  bruised  or  inflamed,  the  con- 
cussion or  shock  produced  by  the  hard  contact  of  the  elastic  iron  w^ith 
the  ground  gives  the  animal  much  pain,  and  aggravates  the  injury  or 
disease.  A  strip  of  felt  or  leather  is  therefore  sometimes  placed  between 
the  seating  of  the  shoe  and  the  crust,  which,  from  its  want  of  elasticity, 
deadens  or  materially  lessens  the  vibration  or  shock,  and  the  horse 
treads  more  freely  and  is  evidently  relieved.  This  is  a  good  contriv 
ance  while  the  inflammation  or  tenderness  of  the  foot  continues,  but  a 
very  bad  practice  if  constantly  adopted.  The  nails  cannot  be  driven  so 
surely  or  securely  when  this  substance  is  interposed  between  the  shoe 
and  the  foot.  The  contraction  and  swelling  of  the  felt  or  leather  from 
the  eflfect  of  moisture  or  dryness  will  soon  render  the  attachment  of  the 
shoe  less  firm,  there  vvill  be  too  much  play  upon  the  nails,  the  nail-holes 
will  enlarge,  and  the  crust  will  be  broken  away. 

After  wounds  or  extensive  bruises  of  the  sole,  or  wdiere  the  sole  is  thin 
and  flat  and  tender,  it  is  sometimes  covered  with  a  piece  of  leather,  fit- 
ted to  the  sole  and  nailed  on  with  the  shoe.  This  may  be  allowed  as  a 
temporary  defense  of  the  foot;  but  there  is  the  same  objection  to  its 
permanent  use  for  the  insecurity  of  fastening,  and  the  strain  on  the  crust 
and  the  frequent  chipping  of  it.  There  are  also  these  additional  incon- 
veniences, that  if  the  hollow  between  the  sole  and  the  leather  is  filled 
with  stopping  and  tow,  it  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  introduce  them  so 
evenly  and  accurately  as  not  to  produce  partial  or  injurious  pressure.  A 
few  days'  work  will  almost  invariably  so  derange  the  padding  as  to  cause 
unequal  pressure.  The  long  contact  of  the  sole  with  stopping  of  almost 
every  kind,  will  produce  not  a  healthy  elastic  horn,  but  that  of  a  scaly, 
spongy  nature,  and  if  the  hollow  is  not  thus  filled,  gravel  and  dirt  will 
insinuate  themselves  and  eat  into  and  injure  the  foot. 

Stopping  the  Ft'et. — The  general  habit  of  stopping  the  feet  requires 
some  consideration.  It  is  a  very  good  or  very  bad  practice,  according 
to  circumstances.  When  the  sole  is  flat  and  thin  it  should  be  omitted, 
except  on  the  evening  before  shoeing,  and  then  the  application  of  a  little 
moisture  may  render  the  paring  of  the  foot  safer  and  more  easy.  If  it 
were  oftener  used  it  would  soften  the  foot,  and  not  only  increase  the 
tendency  to  descent,  but  the  occasional  occurrence  of  lameness  from 
pebbles  or  irregularities  of  the  road. 

Professor  Stewart  gives  a  valuable  account  of  the  proper  application 
of  stopping:  "Farm  horses  seldom  require  any  stopping.     Their  feet 


THE    HORSE.  57 

receive  sufficient  moisture  in  tbe  fields,  or  if  they  do  not  iret  much  tliey 
do  not  need  much.  Cart-horses  used  in  the  town  should  be  stopped 
once  a  week  or  oftener  during  winter,  and  every  second  niglit  in  the  hot 
weeks  of  summer.  Groggy  horses  and  all  those  with  high  heels,  con- 
cave shoes,  or  hot  and  tender  feet  or  an  exuberance  of  horn,  require 
stopping  almost  every  night.  When  neglected,  especially  in  dry  weather, 
the  sole  becomes  hard  and  rigid,  and  the  horse  goes  lame  or  becomes 
lame  if  he  were  not  so  before." 

One  of  two  substances  or  a  mixture  of  both  is  generally  used  for  stop- 
ping the  feet — clay  and  cow-dung.  The  clay  used  alone  is  too  hard  and 
dries  too  rapidly.  Many  horses  have  been  lamed  by  it.  If  it  is  used  in 
the  stable,  it  should  always  be  removed  before  the  horse  goes  to  work. 
It  may  perhaps  be  applied  to  the  feet  of  heavy  draught-horses,  for  it  will 
work  out  before  much  mischief  is  done. 

Cow  dung  is  softer  than  the  clay,  and  it  has  this  good  property,  that 
it  rarely  or  never  becomes  too  hard  or  dry.  For  ordinary  work,  a  mix- 
ture of  equal  parts  of  clay  and  cow-dung  will  be  the  best  application  ; 
cither  of  them,  however,  must  be  applied  with  a  great  deal  of  caution, 
where  there  is  any  disposition  to  thrush.  Tow  used  alone  or  with  a  small 
quantity  of  tar  will  often  be  serviceable. 

In  the  better  kind  of  stables  a  felt  pad  is  frequently  used.  It  keeps  the 
foot  cool  and  moist,  and  is  very  useful  when  the  sole  has  a  tendency  to 
become  flat.     For  the  concave  sole  tow  would  be  preferable. 


Toe  Clasp 

Hinge 
Toe-Clip 


Toe  Clasp 

Hinge 
Toe-Clip 


Heel  Clip 


Heel  Clip 


Rings 


lEON  OF  THE  HOESE-SANDAL 


The  Sandal. — The  shoe  is  sometimes  displaced  when  the  horse  is  going 
at  an  ordinary  pace,  and  more  frequently  during  hunting;  and  no  per- 
son who  is  a  sportsman  needs  to  be  told  in  what  a  vexatious  predica- 
ment every  one  feels  himself  who  happens  to  loose  a  shoe  in  the  middle 
of  a  chase. 
3* 


58 


DOMESTIC   A^BIALS. 


THE   SANDAL. 


Mr.  Percivall  has  invented  a  sandal  \vbicli  occupies  a  very  small 
space  in  the  pocket,  can  be  buckled  on  the  foot  in  less  than  two 
minutes,  and  will  serve  as  si  perfect  substitute  for  the  lost  one  on  the 
road  or  in  the  field,  or  may  be  used  by  the  race-horse  when  traveling 
from  one  course  to  another;  or  may  be  truly  serviceable  in  cases  of  dis- 
eased feet,  that  may  require  at  the  same  time  exercise  and  daily  dress- 
inof.     The  above  is  a  sketch  of  the  horse  sandal. 

From  an  inspection  of  the  cut  on  the  preceding  page  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  iron  of  the  sandal  consists  of  three  principal  parts,  to  which  the 
others  are  appendages — which  are  the  tip,  so  called  from  its  resemblance 
to  the  horse-shoe  of  that  name;  the  middle  bar, the  broad  part  proceed- 
ing backward  from  the  tip  ;  and  the  side  bars,  or  branches  of  the  mid- 
dle bar,  extending  to  the  heels  of  the  hoof.  The  appendages  are,  the  toe- 
clasp,  the  part  projecting  from  the  front  of  the  tip,  and  which  moves  by  a 
hinge  upon  the  toe-clip,  which  toe-clasp  is  furnished  with  two  iron  loops. 
The  heel-clips  are  two  clips  at  the  heels  of  the  side  bars  which  corre- 
spond to  the  toe-clip,  the  latter  embracing  the  toe  of  the  crust  whilst  the 
former  embrace  its  heels.  Through  the  heel-clips  run  the  rings,  wdiich 
move  and  act  like  a  hinge,  and  are  double  for  the  purpose  of  admitting 
both  the  straps.  In  the  plate,  the  right  ring  only  is  represented  ;  the 
left  being  omitted,  the  better  to  show  tlie  heel-clip.  The  straps,  which 
are  composed  of  web,  consist  of  a  hoof-strap  and  a  heel  and  coronet- 
strap. 

The  hoof-strap  is  furnished  with  a  buckle,  whose  office  it  is  to  bind 
the  shoe  to  the  hoof;  for  which  purpose  it  is  passed  through  the  lower 
rings,  and  both  loops  of  the  shoe,  and  is  made  to  encircle  the  hoof 
twice. 

The  heel  and  coronet-strap  are  furnished  with  two  pads  and  two  slid 
ing  loops ;  one,  a  movable  pad,  reposes  on  the  heel,  to  defend  that  part 
from  the  pressure  and  friction  of  the  strap ;  the  other,  a  pad  attached 


THE    IIOKSl^.  59 

to  the  strap  near  the  buckle  affords  a  similar  defense,  to  the  coronet  in 
front.  The  heel-strap  runs  through  the  upper  rings,  crosses  the  heel, 
and  encircles  the  coronet ;  and  its  ofHce  is  to  keep  the  heels  of  the 
shoe  closely  applied  to  the  hoof,  and  to  prevent  them  from  sliding  for- 
ward. 

In  the  application  oi^  the  sandal,  the  foot  is  taken  up  with  one  hand, 
and  the  shoe  slipped  upon  it  with  the  other.  With  the  same  hand, 
the  shoe  is  retained  in  its  place,  while  the  foot  is  gradually  let  down  to 
rest  on  the  ground.  As  soon  as  this  is  done,  the  straps  are  drawn  as 
tight  as  possible,  and  buckled. 

The  preceding  engraving  represents  an  accurate  delineation  of  the 
sandal,  when  properly  fastened  to  the  foot. 

TO  MANAGE  A  FALLEN  HORSE.— Horses  occasionally  fall  from  bad  rid- 
ing,  or  bad  shoeing,  or  overreaching,  or  an  awkward  way  of  setting  on 
the  saddle.  The  head,  the  neck,  the  knees,  the  back,  or  the  legs  will 
oftenest  suffer.  It  is  often  difficult  to  get  the  animal  on  his  legs  again, 
especially  if  he  is  old  and  exhausted,  or  injured  by  the  fall.  Tlie  prin- 
cipal object  is,  to  support  the  head,  and  to  render  it  a  fixed  point  from 
which  the  muscles  may  act  in  supporting  the  body. 

If  the  horse  is  in  harness,  it  is  seldom  that  he  can  rise  until  he  is 
freed  from  the  shafts  and  traces.  The  first  thing  is  to  secure  the  head, 
and  to  keep  it  down,  that  he  may  not  beat  himself  against  the  ground. 
Next,  the  parts  of  the  harness  connected  with  the  carriage  must  be 
unbuckled — the  carriage  must  then  be  backed  a  little  way,  so  that  he 
may  have  room  to  rise.  If  necessary,  the  traces  must  be  taken  off; 
and  after  the  horse  gets  up,  he  must  be  steadied  a  little,  until  he  collects 
himself. 

.  THE  VICES  AND  DISAGREEABLE  OR  DANGEROUS  HABITS  OF  THE  HORSE. 

— The  horse  has  many  excellent  qualities,  but  he  has  likewise  defects, 
and  these  occasionally  amounting  to  vices.  Some  of  them  may  be  at- 
tributed to  natural  temper,  for  the  human  being  scarcely  discovers  more 
peculiarities  of  habit  and  disposition  than  does  the  horse.  The  major- 
ity of  them,  however,  as  perhaps  in  the  human  being,  are  the  conse- 
quences of  a  faulty  education.  Their  early  instructor  has  been  ignorant 
and  brutal,  and  they  have  become  obstinate  and  vicious. 

Restivencss. — At  the  head  of  all  the  vices  of  the  horse  is  restiveness, 
the  most  annoying  and  the  most  dangerous  of  all.  It  is  the  produce 
of  bad  temper  and  worse  education  ;  and,  like  all  other  habits  founded 
on  nature  and  stamped  by  education,  it  is  inveterate.  Whether  it  ap- 
pears in  the  form  of  kicking,  or  rearing,  plunging,  or  bolting,  or  in  any 
way  that  threatens  danger  to  the  rider  or  the  horse,  it  rarely  admits  of 
cure. 

A  determined  rider  may  to  a  certain  extent  subjugate  the  animal; 
or  the  horse  may  have  his  favorites,  or  form  his  attachments,  and  with 
some  particular  person  he  may  be  comparatively  or  perfectly  managea- 
ble; but  others  cannot  long  depend  upon  him,  and  even  his  master  is 
not  always  sure  of  him.  It  is  a  rule,  that  admits  of  very  few  exceptions, 
that  he  neither  displays  his  wisdom  nor  consults  his  safety,  who  at- 
tempts to  conquer  a  restive  horse. 

Balking. — Some  horses  have  the  habit  of  balking  at  first  starting,  but 


60.  DOMESTIC    A^UMALS. 

more  from  playfulness  than  desire  of  mischief.  A  moderate  application 
of  the  whip  will  usually  be  effectual.  Others,  even  after  starting,  ex- 
hibit considerable  obstinacy  and  viciousness.  This  is  frequently  the 
effect  of  bad  breakino-.  Either  the  shoulder  of  the  horse  had  been 
■wrung  when  he  was  first  put  to  the  collar,  or  he  had  been  foolishly 
accustomed  to  be  started  in  the  break  up-hill,  and,  therefore,  all  his 
work  coming  upon  him  at  once,  he  gradually  acquired  this  dangerous 
habit. 

A  hasty  and  passionate  breaker  will  often  make  a  really  good-tem- 
pered young  horse  an  inveterate  balker.  Every  young  horse  is  at  first 
shy  of  the  collar.  If  he  is  too  quickly  forced  to  throw  his  weight  into 
it,  he  will  possibly  take  a  dislike  to  it,  that  will  occasionally  show  itself 
in  the  form  of  balking  as  long  as  he  lives.  The  judicious  horse-breaker 
will  resort  to  no  severity,  even  if  the  colt  should  go  out  several  times 
without  even  touching  the  collar.  The  example  of  his  companion  will 
ultimately  induce  him  to  take  it  voluntarily  and  effectually. 

A  large  and  heavy  stone  should  be  put  behind  the  wheel  before 
starting,  when  the  horse,  finding  it  more  difficult  to  back  than  to  go 
forward,  will  gradually  forget  this  unpleasant  trick.  It  will  likewise  be 
of  advantage,  as  often  as  it  can  be  managed,  so  to  start  that  the  horse 
will  have  to  back  up-hill.  The  difficulty  of  accomplishing  this  will  soon 
make  him  readily  go  forward.  A  little  coaxing,  or  leading,  or  moderate 
flagellation  will  assist  in  accomplishing  the  cure. 

When,  however,  a  horse,  thinking  he  has  had  enough  of  work,  or 
has  been  improperly  checked  or  corrected,  or  beginning  to  feel  the  pain- 
ful pressure  of  the  collar,  swerves,  and  balks,  and  backs,  it  is  a  more 
serious  matter.  Persuasion  should  first  be  tried ;  and,  afterward,  rea- 
sonable coercion,  but  no  cruelty  :  for  the  brutality  which  is  often  exer- 
cised to  compel  a  balking  horse  to  throw  himself  habitually  into  the 
collar,  never  yet  accomplished  the  purpose.  The  horse  may,  perhaps, 
be  whipped  into  motion  ;  but  if  he  has  once  begun  to  balk,  he  will  have 
recourse  to  it  again  whenever  any  circumstance  displeases  or  annoys 
him,  and  the  habit  will  be  so  rapidly  and  completely  formed,  that  he 
will  become  insensible  to  all  severity. 

Sometimes  a  horse  not  often  accustomed  to  balk  betrays  a  reluctance 
to  move,  or  a  determination  not  to  move.  Before  resorting  to  severity, 
the  cause,  if  practicable,  should  be  ascertained.  The  horse  may  be 
over-taxed,  his  withers  may  be  wrung,  or  he  may  be  insupportably 
galled  or  pained  by  the  harness.  These  things  should  be  examined  into, 
and,  if  possible,  rectified  ;  for,  under  such  circumstances,  cruelty  may 
produce  obstinacy  and  vice,  but  not  willing  obedience. 

They  who  are  accustomed  to  horses  know  what  seemingly  trivial  cir- 
cumstances occasionally  produce  this  vice.  A  horse  whose  shoulders 
are  raw,  or  have  frequently  been  so,  will  not  start  with  a  cold  collar. 
When  the  collar  has  acquired  the  warmth  of  the  parts  on  which  it 
presses,  the  animal  will  go  without  reluctance.  Some  determined 
balkers  have  been  reformed  by  constantly  wearing  a  false  collar,  or 
strip  of  cloth  round  the  shoulders,  so  that  tlie  coldness  of  the  usual  col- 
lar should  never  be  felt ;  and  others  have  been  cured  of  the  habit  by 
keeping  the  collar  on  night  and  day,  for  the  animal  is  not  able  to  lie 


THE    HORSE.  61 

down  completely  at  full  length,  which  the  tiled  horse  is  always  glad  to 
do.  When  a  horse  balks,  not  at  starting,  bnt  while  doing  his  work,  it 
has  sometimes  been  useful  to  line  the  collar  with  cloth  instead  of 
leather;  the  perspiration  is  readily  absorbed,  the  substance  which 
presses  on  the  shoulder  is  softer,  and  it  may  be  far  more  accurately 
eased  off  at  a  tender  place. 

Biting. — This  is  either  the  consequence  of  natural  ferocity,  or  a  habit 
acquired  from  the  foolish  and  teasing  play  of  grooms  and  stable-boys. 
When  a  horse  is  tickled  and  pinched  by  thoughtless  and  raischievons 
youths,  he  will  first  pretend  to  bite  his  tormentors;  by  degrees  he  will 
proceed  farther,  and  actually  bite  them,  and  very  soon  after  that,  he 
will  be  the  first  to  challenge  to  the  combat,  and  without,  provocation, 
seize  some  opportunity  to  gripe  the  incautious  tormentor.  At  length,  as 
the  love  of  mischief  is  a  propensity  too  easily  acquired,  this  war,  half 
playful  and  half  in  earnest,  becomes  habitual  to  him,  and  degenerates 
into  absolute  viciousness. 

It  is  seldom  that  any  thing  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  cure.  Kind- 
ness will  aggravate  the  evil,  and  no  degree  of  severity  will  correct  it. 
"I  have  seen,"  says  Professor  Stewart,  "biters  punished  until  they 
trembled  in  every  joint,  and  were  ready  to  drop,  but  have  never  in  any 
case  known  them  cured  by  this  treatment,  or  by  any  other.  The  lash 
is  forgotten  in  an  hour,  and  the  horse  is  as  ready  and  determined  to 
repeat  the  ofi'ense  as  before.  He  appears  unable  to  resist  the  tempta- 
tion, and  in  its  worst  form  biting  is  a  species  of  insanity." 

Prevention,  however  is  in  the  power  of  every  proprietor  of  horses. 
While  he  insists  on  gentle  and  humane  treatment  of  his  cattle,  he 
should  systematically  forbid  this  horse-play. 

Getting  the  Cheek  of  the  Bit  into  the  Mouth. — Some  horses  that  are 
disposed  to  be  mischievous  try  to  do  this  and  are  very  expert  at  it. 
They  soon  find  what  advantage  it  gives  them  over  their  driver,  who  by 
this  maneuver  loses  almost  all  command.  Harsh  treatment  is  here 
completely  out  of  the  question.  All  that  can  be  done,  is,  by  some  me- 
chanical contrivance  to  render  the  thing  difficult  or  impossible,  and  this 
may  be  managed  by  fastening  a  round  piece  of  leather  on  the  inside  of 
the  cheek  of  the  bit. 

Kicking. — This,  as  a  vice,  is  another  consequence  of  the  culpable 
habit  of  grooms  and  stable-boys  of  teasing  the  horse.  That  which  is 
at  first  an  indication  of  annoyance  at  the  pinching  and  tickling  of  the 
groom,  and  without  any  design  to  injure,  gradually  becomes  the  expres- 
sion of  anger  and  the  efii"ort  to  do  mischief.  The  horse,  likewise,  too 
soon  recognizes  the  least  appearance  of  timidity,  and  takes  advantage 
of  the  discovery,  and  he  cannot  be  justified  who  keeps  a  kicking  horse 
in  his  stable. 

Some  horses  acquire,  from  mere  irritability  and  fidgetiness,  a  habit 
of  kicking  at  the  stall  or  the  bail,  and  particularly  at  night.  The 
neighboring  horses  are  disturbed,  and  the  kicker  gets  swelled  hocks,  or 
some  more  serious  injury.  This  is  also  a  habit  very  diflicult  to  correct 
if  suff'ered  to  become  established.  Mares  are  far  more  subject  to  it 
than  horses. 

Before  the  habit  is  inveterately  established,  a  thorn  busli  or  a  piece 


62  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

of  furze  fastened  against  the  partition  or  post  will  sometimes  effect  a 
cure.  When  tlie  horse  finds  that  he  is  pretty  severely  pricked,  he  will 
not  long  continue  to  punish  himself.  In  confirmed  cases  it  may  be 
necessary  to  have  recourse  to  the  log,  but  the  legs  are  often  not  a  little 
bruised  by  it.  x\  rather  long  and  heavy  piece  of  wood  attached  to  a 
chain  has  been  buckled  above  the  hock,  so  as  to  reach  about  half-way 
down  the  leg.  When  the  horse  attempts  to  kick  violently,  his  leg  will 
receive  a  severe  blow  :  this,  and  the  repetition  of  it  may,  after  a  time, 
teach  him  to  be  quiet. 

A  much  more  serious  vice  is  kicking  in  harness.  From  the  least 
annoyance  about  the  rump  or  quarters,  some  horses  will  kick  at  a  most 
violent  rate,  and  destroy  the  bottom  of  the  chaise,  and  endanger  the 
limbs  of  the  driver.  'J  hose  that  are  fidgety  in  the  stable  are  most  apt 
to  do  this.  If  the  reins  should  perchance  get  under  the  tail,  the  vio- 
lence of  the  kicker  will  often  be  most  outrageous  ;  and  while  the  animal 
presses  down  his  tail  so  tightly  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  extricate 
the  reins,  he  continues  to  plunge  until  he  has  demolished  every  thing 
behind  him. 

This  is  a  vice  standing  foremost  in  point  of  danger,  and  which  no 
treatment  will  always  conquer.  It  will  be  altogether  in  vain  to  try 
coercion.  If  the  shafts  are  very  strong  and  without  flaw,  or  if  they  are 
plated  with  iron  underneath,  and  a  stout  kicking  strap  resorted  to 
w^hich  will  barely  allow  the  horse  the  proper  use  of  his  hind  limbs  in 
progression,  but  not  permit  him  to  raise  them  sufficiently  for  the  purpose 
of  kicking,  he  may  be  prevented  from  doing  mischief;  or,  if  he  is  har- 
nessed to  a  heavy  cart,  and  thus  confined,  his  eff"orts  to  lash  out  will  be 
restrained :  but  it  is  frequently  a  very  unpleasant  thing  to  witness  these 
attempt,  though  ineff"ectual,  to  demolish  the  vehicle,  for  the  shafts  or 
the  kicking-strap  may  possibly  break,  and  extreme  danger  may  ensue. 
A  horse  that  has  once  begun  to  kick,  whatever  may  have  been  the 
original  cause  of  it,  can  never  be  depended  upon  again,  and  he  will  be 
very  unwise  who  ventures  behind  him.  The  man,  however,  who  must 
come  within  reach  of  a  kicker  should  come  as  close  to  him  as  possible. 
The  blow  may  thus  become  a  push,  and  seldom  is  injurious.* 

Unsteadiness  while  being  Mounted. — When  this  merely  amounts  to  eager- 
ness to  start — very  unpleasant,  indeed,  at  times,  for  many  a  rider  has  been 
thrown  from  his  seat  before  he  was  fairly  fixed  in  it — it  may  be  remedied 
by  an  active  and  good  horseman.  We  have  known  many  instances  in 
which,  while  the  elderly,  and  inactive  and  fearful  man  has  been  making 
more  than  one  ineflectual  attempt  to  vault  into  the  saddle,  the  horse 
has  been  dancing  about  to  his  annoyance  and  danger;  but  the.  animal 
had  no  sooner  been  transferred  to  the  nianagement  of  a  younger  and 
more  agile  rider  than  he  became  perfectly  subdued.  Severity  will  here, 
more  decidedly  than  in  any  other  case,  do  harm.  The  rider  should  be 
fearless — he  should  carelessly  and  confidently  approach  the  horse, 
mount  at  the  first  efi'ort,  and  then  restrain  him  for  a  while ;  patting  him, 
and  not  .sufiering  him   to  proceed  until  he  becomes  perfectly  quiet. 


*  See  Earey's  Method  of  correcting  this  aud  other  vices,  at  page  35. 


THE    HOKSE.  63 

Horses  of  this  kind  should  not  be  too  highly  fed,  and  should  have  suffi- 
cient daily  exercise. 

AYhen  the  difficulty  of  mounting  arises,  not  from  eagerness  to  start, 
but  unwillingness  to  be  ridden,  the  sooner  that  horse  is  disposed  of  the 
better.  He  "may  be  conquered  by  a  skillful  and  determined  horseman  ; 
but  even  he  will  not  succeed  without  frequent  and  dangerous  contests 
that  will  mar  all  the  pleasure  of  the  ride. 

Rearing. — This  sometimes  results  from  playfulness,  carried  indeed  to 
an  unpleasant  and  dangerous  extent ;  but  it  is  oftener  a  desperate  and 
occasionally  successful  elfort  to  unhorse  the  rider,  and  consequently  a 
vice.  The  horse  that  has  twice  decidedly  and  dangerously  reared, 
should  never  be  trusted  again,  unless,  indeed,  it  was  the  fault  of  the 
rider,  Avho  had  been  using  a  deep  curb  and  a  sharp  bit.  Some  of  the 
best  horses  will  contend  against  these,  and  then  rearing  may  be  im- 
mediately and  permanently  cured  by  using  a  snaffle-bridle  alone. 

The  horse-breaker's  remedy,  tliat  of  pulling  the  horse  backward  on 
a  soft  piece  of  ground,  should  be  practiced  by  reckless  and  brutal 
fellows  alone.  Many  horses  have  been  injured  in  the  spine,  and  others 
have  broken  their  necks,  by  being  thus  suddenly  pulled  over;  while 
even  the  fellow  who  fears  no  danger,  is  not  always  able  to  extricate 
himself  from  the  falling  horse.  If  rearing  proceeds  from  vice,  and  is 
unprovoked  by  the  bruising  and  laceration  of  the  mouth,  it  fully  par- 
takes of  the  inveteracy  which  attends  the  other  divisions  of  restiveness. 

Running  Away, — Some  headstrong  horses  will  occasionally  endeavor 
to  bolt  with  the  best  rider.  Others  with  their  wonted  sagacity  endea- 
vor thus  to  dislodge  the  timid  or  unskillful  one.  Some  are  hard  to 
hold,  or  bolt  only  during  the  excitement  of  the  chase  ;  others  will  run 
away,  prompted  by  a  vicious  propensity  alone.  There  is  no  certain  cure 
here.  The  method  which  atfords  any  probability  of  success  is,  to  ride 
such  a  horse  with  a  strong  curb  and  sharp  bit ;  to  have  him  always 
firmly  in  hand  ;  and,  if  he  will  run  away,  and  the  place  will  admit  of 
it,  to  give  him  (sparing  neither  curb,  whip,  nor  spur)  a  great  deal  more 
running  than  he  likes. 

Vicious  to  Clean. — It  would  scarcely  be  credited  to  what  an  extent  this 
exists  in  some  horses  that  are  otherwise  perfectly  quiet.  It  is  only  at 
great  hazard  that  they  can  be  cleansed  at  all.  The  origin  of  this  is 
probably  some  maltreatment.  There  is,  however,  a  great  diff'erence  in 
the  sensibility  of  the  skin  in  difi"erent  horses.  Some  seem  as  if  they 
could  scarcely  be  made  to  feel  the  whip,  while  others  cannot  bear  a  fly 
to  light  on  them  without  an  expression  of  annoyance.  In  young  horses 
the  skin  is  peculiarly  delicate.  If  they  have  been  curried  with  a  broken 
comb,  or  hardly  rubbed  w'ith  an  uneven  brush,  the  recollection  of  the 
torture  they  have  felt  makes  them  impatient,  and  even  vicious,  during 
every  succeeding  operation  of  the  kind.  Many  grooms,  likewise,  seem 
to  delight  in  producing  these  exhibitions  of  uneasiness  and  vice  ; 
although,  when  they  are  carried  a  little  too  far,  and  at  the  hazard  of 
the  limbs  of  the  groom,  the  animals  that  have  been  almost  tutored  into 
these  expressions  of  irritation  are  brutally  kicked  and  punished. 

This,  however,  is  a  vice  that  may  be  conquered.  If  the  horse  is 
dressed  with  a  lighter  liand,  and  w^isped  rather  than  brushed,  and  the 


64  DOMESTIC    AIsIMALS. 

places  where  the  skin  is  most  sensitive  are  avoided  as  mnch  as  thorough 
cleanliness  will  allow,  he  will  gradually  lose  the  recollection  of  former 
ill-treatment,  and  become  tractable  and  quiet. 

Vicious  to  Shoe. — The  correction  of  this  is  more  peculiarly  the  busi- 
ness of  the  smith ;  yet  the  master  should  diligently  concern  himself 
with  itjfor  it  is  oftener  the  consequence  of  injudicious  or  bad  usage  than 
of  natural  vice.  It  may  be  expected  that  there  will  be  some  difficulty 
in  shoeing  a  horse  for  the  first  few  times.  It  is  an  operation  that  gives 
him  a  little  uneasiness.  The  man  to  whom  he  is  most  accustomed 
should  go  with  him  to  the  forge  ;  and  if  another  and  steady  horse  is 
shod  before  him,  he  may  be  induced  more  readily  to  submit.  It  cannot 
be  denied  that,  after  the  habit  of  resisting  this  necessary  operation  is 
formed,  force  may  be  sometimes  necessary  to  reduce  our  rebellious  ser- 
vant to  obedience  ;  but  we  unhesitatingly  affirm  that  the  majority  of 
horses  vicious  to  shoe  are  rendered  so  by  harsh  usage,  and  by  the  pain 
of  correction  being  added  to  the  uneasiness  of  shoeing.  It  should  be 
a  rule  in  every  forge  that  no  smith  should  be  permitted  to  strike  a  horse, 
much  less  to  twitch  or  to  gag  him,  without  the  master-farrier's  order  ; 
and  that  a  young  horse  should  never  be  twitched  or  struck.  There  are 
few  horses  that  may  not  be  gradually  rendered  manageable  for  this 
purpose  by  mildness  and  firmness  in  the  operator.  They  will  soon  un- 
derstand that  no  harm  is  meant,  and  they  will  not  forget  their  usual 
habit  of  obedience  ;  but  if  the  remembrance  of  corporal  punishment 
is  connected  with  shoeing,  they  will  always  be  fidgety,  and  occasionally 
dangerous. 

Swallowing  Without  Grinding. — Horses  have  many  unpleasant  habits  in 
the  stable  and  on  the  road,  which  cannot  be  said  to  amount  to  vice,  but 
which  materially  lessen  their  value. 

Some  greedy  horses  habitually  swallow  their  grain  without  properly 
grinding  it,  and  the  power  of  digestion  not  being  adequate  to  the  dis- 
solving of  the  husk,  no  nutriment  is  extracted,  and  the  oats  are  voided 
whole.  This  is  particularly  the  case  when  horses  of  unequal  appetite 
feed  from  the  same  manger.  The  greedy  one,  in  liis  eagerness  to  get 
more  than  his  share,  bolts  a  portion  of  his  grain  whole.  If  the  farmer, 
without  considerable  inconvenience,  could  contrive  that  every  horse 
shall  have  his  separate  division  of  the  manger,  the  one  .of  smaller  appe- 
tite and  slower  feed  would  have  the  opportunity  of  grinding  at  his 
leisure,  without  the  fear  of  the  gi-eater  share  being  stolen  by  his  neigh- 
bor. 

Some  horses,  however,  are  naturally  greedy  feeders,  and  will  not, 
even  when  alone,  allow  themselves  time  to  chew  or  grind  their  grain. 
In  consequence  of  this  they  carry  but  little  flesh,  and  are  not  equal  to 
severe  work.  If  the  rack  was  supplied  with  hay  when  the  grain  was 
put  into  the  manger,  they  will  continue  to  cat  on,  and  their  stomachs 
will  become  distended  with  half-chewed  and  indigestible  food.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  they  will  be  incapable  of  considerable  exertion  for  a 
long  time  after  feeding,  and,  occasionally,  dangerous  symptoms  of  stag- 
gers will  occur. 

The  remedy  is,  not  to  let  such  horses  fast  too  long.  The  nosebag 
should  be  the   companion  of  every  considerable  journey.     The  food 


THE   HOKSE.  65 

should  likewise  be  of  such  a  nature  that  it  cannot  be  rapidly  bolted. 
Cliaff  should  be  plentifully  mixed  with  the  grain,  and,  in  some  cases, 
and  especially  in  horses  of  slow  work,  it  should,  with  the  grain,  con?»ti- 
tute  the  whole  of  the  food.  This  will  be  treated  on  more  at  large  un- 
der the  article  "Feeding." 

In  every  case  of  this  kind  the  teeth  should  be  carefully  examined. 
Some  of  them  may  be  unduly  lengthened,  particularly  the  fii'st  of  the 
grinders;  or  they  may  be  ragged  at  the  edges,  and  may  abrade  and 
wound  the  cheek.  In  the  first  place  the  horse  cannot  properly  masti- 
cate his  food  ;  in  the  latter  he  will  not;  for  these  animals,  as  too  often 
liappens  in  sore-throat,  would  rather  starve  than  put  themselves  to  much 
pain. 

Crib-Biting. — This  is  a  very  unpleasant  habit,  and  a  considerable  de- 
fect, although  not  so  serious  a  one  as  some  have  represented.  The 
horse  lays  hold  of  the  manger  with  his  teeth,  violently  extends  his  neck, 
and  then,  after  some  convulsive  action  of  the  throat,  a  slight  grunting 
is  heard,  accompanied  by  a  sucking  or  drawing  in  of  air.  It  is  not  an 
effort  at  simple  eructation,  arising  from  indigestion.  It  is  the  inhalation 
of  air.  It  is  that  which  takes  place  with  all  kinds  of  diet,  and  when  the 
stomach  is  empty  as  well  as  when  it  is  full. 

The  effects  of  crib-biting  are  plain  enough.  The  teeth  are  injured 
and  worn  away,  and  that,  in  an  old  horse,  to  a  very  serious  degree. 
A  considerable  quantity  of  grain  is  often  lost,  for  the  horse  will  fre- 
quently crib  with  his  mouth  full  of  it,  and  the  greater  part  will  fall  over 
the  edge  of  the  manger.  Much  saliva  escapes  while  the  manger  is  thus 
forcibly  held,  the  loss  of  which  must  be  of  serious  detriment  in  impair- 
ing the  digestion.  The  crib-biting  horse  is  notoriously  more  subject  to 
colic  than  other  horses,  and  to  a  species  difficult  of  treatment  and  fre- 
quently dangerous.  Although  many  a  crib-biter  is  stout  and  strong, 
and  capable  of  all  ordinary  work,  these  horses  do  not  generally  carry 
so  much  flesh  as  others,  and  have  not  their  endurance.  On  these 
accounts  crib-biting  has  very  properly  been  decided  to  be  unsoundness. 
We  must  not  look  to  the  state  of  the  disease  at  the  time  of  purchase. 
The  question  is,  does  it  exist  at  all?  A  case  was  tried  before  Lord  Ten- 
terden,  and  thus  decided  :  "a  horse  with  crib-biting  is  unsound." 

It  is  one  of  those  tricks  which  are  exceedingly  contagious.  Every 
companion  of  a  crib-biter  in  the  same  stables  is  likely  to  acquire  the 
habit,  and  it  is  the  most  inveterate  of  all  habits.  The  edge  of  the 
manger  will  in  vain  be  lined  with  iron,  or  with  sheep-skin,  or  with 
sheep-skin  covered  with  tar  or  aloes,  or  any  other  unpleasant  substance. 
In  defiance  of  the  annoyance  which  these  may  occasion,  the  horse  will 
persist  in  the  attack  on  his  manger.  A  strap  buckled  tightly  round  the 
neck,  by  compressing  the  wind-pipe,  is  the  best  means  of  preventing  the 
possibility  of  this  trick ;  but  the  strap  must  be  constantly  worn,  and  its 
pressure  is  too  apt  to  produce  a  worse  affection,  viz.,  an  irritation  in  the 
wind-pipe,  which  terminates  in  roaring. 

Some  have  recommended  turning  out  for  five  or  six  months;  but  this 
has  never  succeeded  except  with  a  young  horse,  and  then  rarely.  The 
old  crib-biter  will  employ  the  gate  for  the  same  purpose  as  the  edge  of 
his  manger,  and  we  have  often  seen  him  galloping  across  a  field  for  the 


G6  DO:SIESTIC    A^^ENIALS. 

mere  object  of  having  a  gripe  at  a  rail.     Medicine  will  be  altogether 
thrown  away  in  this  case. 

The  only  remedy  is  a  muzzle,  with  bars  across  the  bottom  ;  sufficient- 
ly wide  to  enable  the  animal  to  pick  up  his  corn  and  to  pull  his  hay, 
Vut  not  to  grasp  the  edge  of  the  manger.  If  this  is  worn  for  a  consid- 
irable  period,  the  horse  may  be  tired  of  attempting  that  which  he 
cannot  accomplish,  and  for  a  while  forget  the  habit,  but  in  a  majority 
>f  cases,  the  desire  of  crib-biting  will  return  with  the  power  of  grati- 
ying  it. 

The  causes  of  crib-biting  are  various,  and  some  of  them  beyond  the 
control  of  the  proprietor  of  the  horse.  It  is  often  the  result  of  imita- 
tion;  but  it  is  more  frequently  the  consequence  of  idleness.  The  high 
fed  and  spirited  horse  must  be  in  mischief  if  he  is  not  usefully  employed. 
Sometimes,  but  we  believe  not  often,  it  is  produced  by  partial  starva- 
tion, whether  in  a  bad  straw-yard,  or  from  unpalatable  food.  An  occa- 
sional cause  of  crib-biting  is  the  frequent  custom  of  grooms,  even  when 
the  weather  is  not  severe,  of  dressing  them  in  the  stable.  The  horse 
either  catches  at  the  edge  of  the  manger,  or  at  that  of  the  partition  on 
each  side,  if  he  has  been  turned,  and  thus  he  foiTQS  the  habit  of  laying 
hold  of  these  substances  on  every  occasion. 

AVind-Suckillg. — This  bears  a  close  analogy  to  crib-biting.  It  arises 
from  the  same  causes;  the  same  purpose  is  accomplished  ;  and  the  same 
results  follow.  The  horse  stands  with  his  neck  bent;  his  head  drawn 
inward ;  his  lips  alternately  a  little  opened  and  then  closed,  and  a  noise 
is  heard  as  if  he  were  sucking.  If  we  may  judge  from  the  same  com- 
parative want  of  condition  and  the  flatulence  which  we  have  described 
under  the  last  head,  either  some  portion  of  wnnd  enters  the  stomach,  or 
there  is  an  injurious  loss  of  saliva.  This  diminishes  the  value  of  the 
horse  almost  as  much  as  crib-biting;  it  is  as  contagious,  and  it  is  as  in- 
veterate. The  onl.y  remedies,  and  they  will  seldom  avail,  are  tying  the 
head  up,  except  when  the  horse  is  feeding,  or  putting  on  a  muzzle 
with  sharp  spikes  toward  the  neck,  and  which  will  prick  him  whenever 
he  attempts  to  rein  his  head  in  for  the  purpose  of  wind-sucking. 

Not  Lying  Down, — It  not  uncommonly  happens  that  a  horse  will  sel- 
dom or  never  lie  down  in  the  stable.  He  sometimes  continues  in  appa- 
rent good  health,  and  feeds  and  works  well ;  but  generally  his  legs 
swell,  or  he  becomes  fatigued  sooner  than  another  horse.  If  it  is  im- 
possible to  let  him  loose  in  the  saddle,  or  to  put  him  into  a  spare  box, 
we  know  not  wdiat  is  to  be  done.  No  means,  gentle  or  cruel,  will  force 
him  to  lie  down.  The  secret  is  that  he  is  tied  up,  and  either  has  never 
dared  to  lie  down  through  fear  of  the  confinement  of  the  halter,  or  he 
has  been  cast  in  the  night  and  severely  injured.  If  he  can  be  suffered 
to  range  the  stable,  or  have  a  comfortable  box  in  which  he  may  be 
loose,  he  will  usually  lie  down  the  first  night.  Some  few  horses,  however, 
will  lie  down  in  the  stable,  and  not  in  a  loose  box.  A  fresh,  well-made 
bed,  will  generally  tempt  the  tired-out  horse  to  refresh  himself  with 
sleep. 

Overreach. — This  unpleasant  noise,  known  also  by  the  term  "  click 
ing,"  arises  from  the  toe  of  the  hind-foot  knocking  against  the  shoe  of 
the  fore-foot. 


THE    HOKSE.  67 

If  the  animal  is  yoimg,  the  action  of  the  horse  may  be  materially 
improved  ;  otherwise  nothing  can  be  done,  except  to  keep  the  toe  of  the 
hind  foot  as  sliort  and  as  round  as  it  can  safely  be,  and  to  bevel  off  and 
round  the  toe  of  the  shoe,  like  that  which  has  been  worn  off  by  a 
stanibHng  horse,  and  perhaps,  to  lower  the  heel  of  the  fore-foot  a 
little. 
i  Pawing, — Some  hot  and  irritable  horses  are  restless  even  in  the  sta- 
!  ble,  and  paw  frequently  and  violently.  Their  litter  is  destroyed,  the 
floor  of  the  stable  broken  up,  the  shoes  worn  out,  the  feet  bruised,  and 
the  legs  sometimes  sprained.  If  this  habit  does  not  exist  to  any  great 
extent,  yet  the  stable  never  looks  well.  Shackles  are  the  only  remedy, 
with  a  chain  sufficiently  long  to  enable  the  horse  to  shift  his  posture,  or 
move  in  his  stall;  but  these  must  be  taken  off  at  night,  otherwise  the 
animal  will  seldom  lie  down.  Except,  however,  the  horse  possesses 
peculiar  value,  it  will  be  better  to  dispose  of  him  at  once,  than  to  sub- 
mit to  the  danger  and  inconvenience  that  he  may  occasion. 

Qaidllillg. — A  horse  will  sometimes  partly  chew  his  hay  and  suffer  it 
to  drop  from  his  mouth.  If  this  does  not  proceed  from  irregular  teeth, 
which  it  will  be  the  business  of  the  veterinary  surgeon  to  rasp  down,  it 
will  be  found  to  be  connected  with  sore-throat,  and  then  the  horse  will 
exhibit  some  other  symptoms  of  indisposition,  and  particularly  the  swal- 
lowing of  water  will  be  accompanied  by  a  peculiar  gulping  effort.  In 
this  case  the  disease  (catarrh  with  sore-throat)  must  be  attacked,  and  the 
quidding  \\\\\  cease. 

Rolling. — This  is  a  very  pleasant  and  perfectly  safe  amusement  for  a 
horse  at  grass,  but  cannot  be  indulged  in  the  stable  without  the  chance 
of  his  being  dangerously  entangled  with  the  collar-rein  (halter)  and 
being  cast.  Yet,  although  the  horse  is  cast  and  bruised,  and  half- 
strano-led,  he  w'ill  roll  airain  on  the  followins:  niixht  and  continue  to  do 
so  as  long  as  he  lives.  The  only  remedy  is  not  a  very  pleasant  one  for 
the  horse,  nor  always  quite  safe ;  yet  it  must  be  had  recourse  to,  if  the 
habit  of  rolling  is  inveterate.  "The  horse,"  says  Mr.  Castley,  "should 
be  tied  wnth  length  enough  of  halter  to  lie  down,  but  not  to  allow  of  his 
head  resting  on  the  ground ;  because,  in  order  to  roll  over,  a  horse  is 
obliged  to  place  his  head  quite  down  upon  the  ground." 

Shying. — We  have  before  briefly  treated  of  the  cause  of  this  vice,  and 
observed  that  while  it  is  often  the  result  of  cowardice  or  playfulness,  or 
want  of  work,  it  is  at  other  times  the  consequence  of  a  defect  of  sight. 
It  has  been  remarked,  and  we  beheve  very  truly,  that  shying  is  oftener 
a  vice  of  half  or  quarter  bred  horses,  than  of  those  who  have  in  them 
more  of  the  genuine  racing  blood. 
1  In  the  treatment  of  sliymg,  it  is  of  great  importance  to  distinguish 
between  that  which  is  the  consequence  of  defective  sight,  and  what 
results  from  fear  or  newness  of  objects,  or  mere  affectation  or  skittish- 
ness.  For  the  first,  the  nature  of  which  we  have  explained  before,  every 
allowance  must  be  made,  and  care  must  be  taken  that  the  fear  of  cor- 
rection is  not  associated  with  the  imagined  existence  of  some  terrifying 
object.  The  severe  use  of  the  whip  and  the  spur  cannot  do  good  here, 
and  are  likely  to  aggravate  the  vice  tenfold.  A  w^ord  half  encouraging 
and  half  scolding  with  a  slight  pressure  of  the  heel  or  a  slight  touch  of 


68  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

tlic  H|)iir,  will  tell  llic,  liorsc.  tli;it  tliorc.  Ih  Tiotliirrfr  to  fear,  arid  will  f^nvc 
liirn  confidence  in  liis  rider  on  a  fiitiin;  occasion. 

Tlic  sliyin*^  from  Hkittislincss  or  afiectal.ion  is  quite;  a  dinerent  aflair, 
and  must  ho  coiKinercd — but  liow  ?  Severity  is  altoLjetlier  out  of 
plae.e.  If  lie  is  forccid  into  contact  with  the  object  by  <liiit  of  correc- 
tion, tlie  dr(!ad  of  punislimcnt  will  afterward  be  associate*!  with  that 
obje(;t,  and  on  the  next  o<;casion  his  startings  will  be  more  fref|Ment  and 
more  da!ie;eroiis.  The  way  to  cure  him  is  to  ^o  on,  tnrninir  as  little  as 
])ossibl(;  out  of  tin;  road,  [^ivinijj  a  harsh  word  or  two  and  a  gentle  touch 
witli  the  spur,  and  then  takinj^  no  more  noti(5e  of  the  matter.  After  a 
f(!W  times,  what<!ver  may  have  be(!n  the  object  which  h(j  cliose  tc 
8(!lect  as  the  pretend(Ml  cause  of  allVi^ht,  he  will  [)ass  it  almost  with- 
out noti(;(!. 

Under  tlie  head  Hrcak'nui-rn  wc  described  how  the  colt  may  bo 
cured  of  the  habit  of  shyin*^  from  fear  or  n(!wness  of  objcicts;  and  if  ho 
then  is  a(;customed  as  much  as  possible  to  the  obj(;cts  amon^r  which  his 
services  will  be  refjuire<l,  \\(\  will  not  possess  this  annoyinj^  vi(;e  when  ho 
grows  to  maturer  ai,^e. 

It  is  now  jrt'iK^rally  admitte*!  by  all  riding-masters  and  colt-breakers, 
tliat  a  great  deal  more  is  to  be  elhu'ted  l)y  lenicuit  than  by  harsh  tn^at- 
iiient.  llewanls  are  found  to  ojx'ratc;  more  beneficially  than  punish- 
ni(!nts,  atid  theniforo  the  most  s(nentifi(^  und  [)racticed  riding-masters 
ado[)t  methods  based  u])on  the  former. 

L(!t  us  not  be  und(;rst,<)od  to  mc^an  that  the  animal  is  to  receive  any 
cncourageiiKMit  to  shy  ;  for  by  no  other  expression  can  be  characterized 
that  erroiKMHis  and  foolish  ])ractice  of  patting  the  horse  or"mukiiig 
much  of  him,"  either  just  before  or  during  the  time  Ik;  evinces  shyness, 
'^riie  former  is  bad,  Ixjcausc;  it  draws  the  attention  of  the  animal  to  the 
obj(;ct  he  drea<ls;  the  latter  is  worse,  Ix'cause  it  fills  him  with  the  im- 
pression eit  h(!r  that  tli(;  object  itself  is  really  terrifh^,  or  that  lie  has  acted 
right  in  shying  at  it,  and  ought  to  do  so  again. 

Whether  W(!  are  approaediing  the  frightful  object  or  the  liorsc;  is  actu- 
ally sliying,  "w(f  sliould  let  him  alone,"  "  wc;  should  take  no  notice 
\vliat(5ver  of  him,"  neither  letting  liim  perceive  that  w(?  are  aware  that 
■W(;  are  advan(;ing  towanl  any  tiling  \w.  dislikes,  nor  do  more  witii  him 
whil(5  in  the  act  of  shying  than  is  iKicessary  for  duo  restniint  with  a 
steady  hand  ujxui  the  rein.  We  may  depcuid  upon  it,  that  battling  on 
our  |)art  will  only  serve  to  augment  aHVight  and  arouse  resistance  on  his, 
and  that  the  most  judicious  course  we  can  pursue  is  to  j)ersev(!re  in  mild 
forbearant  usage. 

Shying  on  eonrnig  out  of  the  stable  is  a  habit  that  can  rarely  or 
never  i)e  cured,  it  pioeeeils  from  the  remembrance  of  some  ill-usago 
or  hurt  which  the  animal  lias  re(;eived  in  the  act  of  proceeding  from  the 
stai)le,  su(di  as  striking  his  head  against  a  low  doorway  or  entangling 
the  harness. 

When  the  cure,  howevcM*,  is  (!arly  attempted,  it  may  be  so  far  over- 
come that  it  will  b(f  unattended  with  thmger  or  diflic-ulty.  The  horse 
should  be  bridled  wImui  led  out  or  in.  lie  should  be  held  short  and 
tight  by  the  head,  that  lu!  may  feed  he  lias  not  liberty  to  make  a  leap, 
and  this  of  itself  is  often  sulHeient  to  restrain  him.      runishment,  or  a 


i 


Tiii<:  Hoii.sio.  69 

throat  of  piinislunoTit,  will  bo  ]ii<:;lily  iinpropor.  Tt  is  only  timid  or 
lii_i;li-spii-i|,(Ml  lioi-scs  tliat  iKupiirc;  ijiis  liaMi,  and  roiii;li  uhm^h-,  iiivarialdy 
in(M-c;is('s  tJKMr  .-ii^ilatioii  and  terror. 

Slippili;^  till'/  (Joljiir  or  llullcr. Tiiis  is  a  tri(  1<  at  wlii(;li  many  lior.sca 
aro  Po  clever,  that  .soarocdy  a  nijrlit  pa.ssos  witliout  their  ^((t.tinjj;  loose. 
It  is  a  very  vsorious  habit,  for  it  enables  the  horse  Hometinies  to  Jj^orjro 
liimself  with  food,  to  the  imminent  danger  of  stMgg(!rH ;  or  it  expos(!s 
him,  as  he  wanders  abont,  to  be  kicked  and  injured  by  tlie  other  horses, 
while  his  restlessn(!ss  will  often  keep  the  whole  team  awake.  If  the 
web  of  the  halter,  beiiiir  first  accurately  fitted  to  his  neck,  is  sntTered  to 
slip  only  one  way,  or  a  strap  is  attacdied  to  the  halter  and  buckled  round 
the  neck,  but  not  sufliciently  tiglit  to  be  of  serious  inconvtinienco,  the 
power  of  slipping  tin;  (collar  will  be  taken  away. 

TripplM?. —  II(;inustl)e  a  skillful  practitioner  or  a  mere  pnitendor  vvlio 
promises  to  remedy  this  habit.  If  it  arises  from  a  heavy  fo)(!liand,  and 
the  fore-legs  being  too  much  under  the  horse,  no  one  can  alter  the  nat- 
ural frame  of  tin;  animal;  if  it  procecids  from  tenderness  of  the  foot, 
grogginesH,  or  old  lameness,  these  ailments  art;  s('Mom  cured.  Also  if  it 
IS  to  be  tracked  to  habitual  carelessness  and  idleness,  no  whipping  will 
rouse  the  drorio.  A  known  stuird)ler  should  nev(!r  be  ridden  or  driven 
by  any  one  who  valui^s  his  saf(;ty  or  his  life  A  tight  hand  or  a  strong 
bearing  rv.iu  arc;  precautions  that  should  not  be  negl(;cted,  althougli  tluiy 
are  generally  of  litfh;  avail;  for  the  inv(!t(;rate  stuird)I<!r  will  rarely  bo 
able  to  save  himscdf,  and  this  tight  rein  may  sooner  and  farther  preci[)i- 
tate  the  ri<Ier.  If  nfter  a  trip  the  horse;  suddeidy  starts  forward,  and 
endeavors  to  break  into  a  short  trot  or  canter,  th(;  ri<ler  or  driver  may 
be  assured  that  others  before  him  have  fruitl(;ssly  end('avor(;(J  to  rem(;dy 
the  nuisance. 

If  the  stumblcr  h;is  tin;  foot  kept  as  sliort,  and  the  to(;  pared  as  close 
as  safety  will  pcirmit,  and  the  shoe  is  rounded  at  the  toe  or  has  thafc 
sha[)e  given  to  it  which  it  naturally  acxpiires  in  a  forttiight,  from  the 
peculiar  action  of  su.;h  a  horse,  the  animal  may  not  stumble;  (piito  so 
much;  or  if  the  disease  wliich  produced  the  habit  can  be  alleviated, 
some  trilling  good  may  be  done,  but  in  almost  every  case  a  stumblcr 
should  be  got  rid  of,  or  put  to  slow  and  heavy  work.  ]f  the  latter  al- 
ternative is  adopted,  he  may  trip  as  much  as  ho  pleases,  for  the  weight 
of  tin;  load  and  the  motion  of  the  oth(;r  horses  will  k(;(;p  him  u|»on  his 
lt'g«. 

Weaving?. — This  consists  in  a  motion  of  the;  head,  nee,k,  an<l  body  from 
side  to  side,  like  the  shuttle;  of  a  w<!aver  [)assing  through  the  web,  and 
lience  tin;  n;i,me  which  is  given  to  this  p(;culiar  and  incessant  anel  un- 
])leasant  action.  It  indie.at(!S  an  impatient,  irritable  t(!mper  and  a  dis- 
like to  the  confinement  of  the;  stable;.  A  horse;  that  is  thus  ine;e;ssantly 
on  the  fret  will  se;lelom  carry  flesh,  or  1)0  safe  to  rieh;  or  drive;.  'J'he'ro  is 
no  c\ire  fe)r  it  ]>ut  the  close  tying  up  of  the;  animal,  or  at  le-ast  allowing 
Iiim  but  one  lextse  reifi,  e;xce![)t  at  teeiding-timc;. 

SOUNDNESS,  AND  Till]  IMiRCIIAM']  AND  SALK  OF  HORSES.— The-re  are 
few  sources  e>t  greiate^i-  jinnejyjuicc,  l)(»th  te>  IIk;  pur<;li;ise;r  and  the  seller 
of  the  horse;,  than  disj)ute;s  with  retgard  to  the  soundness  of  the;  animal. 

That  horse  is  sound  in  whom  there  is  no  disease,  and  no  alteration 


70  DOMESTIC    AXIMALS. 

of  structure  that  impairs,  or  is  likely  to  impair,  his  natural  nscfnlness. 
The  horse  is  unsound  that  labors  under  disease,  or  has  some  alteration 
of  structure  which  does  interfere,  or  is  Hkely  to  interfere,  with  his  natural 
usefulness.  The  term  "  natural  usefulness'''  must  be  borne  in  mind.  One 
horse  may  possess  great  speed,  but  is  soon  knocked  up ;  another  will 
work  all  day,  but  cannot  be  got  beyond  a  snail's  pace  :  a  third  with  a 
heavy  forehand  is  liable  to  stumble,  and  is  continually  putting  to  haz- 
ard the  neck  of  his  rider  ;  another,  with  an  irritable  constitution  and  a 
loose,  washy  form,  loses  his  appetite  and  begins  to  scour  if  a  little  extra 
work  is  exacted  from  him.  The  term  unsoundness  must  not  be  applied 
to  either  of  these ;  it  would  be  opening  far  too  widely  a  door  to  dispu- 
tation and  endless  wrangling.  The  bnyer  can  discern,  or  ought  to 
know,  whether  the  form  of  the  horse  is  that  which  will  render  him 
likely  to  suit  his  purpose,  and  he  should  try  him  sufficiently  to  ascer- 
tain his  natural  strength,  endurance,  and  manner  of  going.  Unsound- 
ness, we  repeat,  has  reference  only  to  disease,  or  to  that  alteration  of 
structure  which  is  connected  with,  or  will  produce  disease,  and  lessen 
the  usefulness  of  the  animal. 

These  principles  will  be  best  illustrated  by  a  brief  consideration  of 
the  usually  supposed  appearances  or  causes  of  unsoundness. 

Broken  Rliees  certainly  do  not  constitute  unsoundness,  after  the 
wounds  are  healed,  unless  they  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  joint ; 
for  the  horse  may  have  fallen  from  mere  accident,  or  through  the  fault 
of  the  rider,  without  the  slightest  damage  more  than  the  blemish.  No 
person,  however,  would  buy  a  horse  with  broken  knees,  until  he  has 
thoroughly  tried  him,  and  satisfied  himself  as  to  his  form  and  action. 

Capped  Hocks  may  be  produced  by  lying  on  an  unevenly  paved  stable, 
with  a  scanty  supply  of  litter,  or  by  kicking  generally,  in  neither  of 
which  cases  would  they  constitute  unsoundness,  although  in  the  latter 
they  would  be  an  indication  of  vice  ;  but,  in  the  majority  of  instances, 
they  are  the  consequence  of  sprain,  or  of  latent  injury  of  the  hock, 
and  accompanied  by  enlargement  of  it,  and  would  constitute  unsound- 
ness. A  special  warranty  should  always  be  taken  against  capped 
hocks. 

Contraction  is  a  considerable  deviation  from  the  natural  form  of  the 
foot,  but  not  necessarily  constituting  unsoundness.  It  requires,  how- 
ever, a  most  careful  examination  on  the  part  of  the  purchaser  or  veteri- 
nary surgeon,  in  order  to  ascertain  that  there  is  no  heat  about  the  quar- 
ter, or  ossification  of  the  cartilage — that  the  frog,  although  diminished 
in  size,  is  not  diseiised — that  the  horse  does  not  step  short  and  go  as  if 
the  foot  were  tender,  and  that  there  is  not  the  slightest  trace  of  lame- 
ness. Unless  these  circumstances,  or  some  of  them,  are  detected,  a 
horse  must  not  be  pronounced  to  be  unsound  because  his  feet  are  con- 
tracted;  for  many  horses  with  strangely  contracted  feet  do  not  suffer  at 
all  in  their  action.  A  special  warranty,  however,  should  be  required 
where  the  feet  are  at  all  co!itracted. 

Corns  manifestly  constitute  unsoundness.  The  portion  of  the  foot  in 
which  bad  corns  arc  situated,  will  not  bear  the  ordinary  pressure  of  the 
shoe;  and  accidental  additional  pressure  from  the  growing  down  of  the 
horn,  or  the  introduction  of  dirt  or  gravel,  will  cause  serious  lameness. 


THE   HORSE.  71 

Thev  render  it  necessary  to  wear  a  thick  and  hep«'y  shoe,  or  a  bar-slioe. 
in  order  to  protect  tiic  weakened  and  diseased  part;  and  they  arc  very 
seldom  radically  cured.  There  may  be,  however,  and  frequently  is,  a 
difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  actual  existence  or  character  of  the  corn. 
They  are  sometimes,  too,  so  slight  that  they  do  not  diminish  the  value 
of  the  horse,  and  will  disappear  on  the  horse  being  shod  with  ordinary 
skill  and  care,  even  without  any  alteration  in  tlie  shoe. 

Cough. — This  is  a  disease,  and  consequently  unsoundness.  However 
slight  may  be  its  degree,  and  of  whatever  short  standing  it  may  be, 
although  it  may  sometimes  scarcely  seem  to  interfere  with  the  useful- 
ness of  the  horse,  yet  a  change  of  stabling  or  slight  exposure  to  wet 
and  cold,  or  the  least  over-exertion,  may,  at  other  times,  cause  it  to  de- 
generate into  many  dangerous  complaints.  A  horse,  therefore,  should 
never  be  purchased  with  a  cough  upon  him,  without  a  special  warranty  ; 
or  if — the  cough  not  being  observed — he  is  purchased  under  a  general 
warranty,  that  warranty  is  thereby  broken.  It  is  not  law,  that  a  horse 
may  be  returned  on  breach  of  the  warranty.  The  seller  is  not  bound 
to  take  him  back,  unless  he  has  contracted  so  to  do;  but  he  is  liable 
to  damages.  Lord  Ellenborough  has  completely  decided  this  matter. 
"I  have  always  held,"  said  he,  "that  a  warranty  of  soundness  is  broken, 
if  the  animal,  at  the  time  of  sale,  had  any  infirmity  upon  him  that  ren- 
dered him  less  fit  for  present  service.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  dis- 
order should  be  permanent  or  incurable.  AVhile  he  has  a  cough,  he  is 
unsound,  although  that  may  either  be  tempoi'ary  or  prove  mortal." 

In  deciding  on  another  case,  the  same  judge  said,  "  I  have  always  held 
it  that  a  cough  is  a  breach  of  the  wari-anty.  On  that  understanding  I 
have  always  acted,  and  think  it  quite  clear."  It  was  argued  on  the 
other  hand  that  two-thirds  of  the  horses  in  London  had  coughs,  yet 
still  the  judge  maintained  that  the  cough  was  a  breach  of  warranty. 
When  it  was  farther  argued  that  the  horse  had  been  hunted  the  day 
after  the  purchase,  and  the  cough  might  have  been  increased  by  this, 
the  reply  was  singular,  but,  decisive.  "There  is  no  proof  that  he  would 
have  got  well  if  he  had  not  been  hunted." 

Roaring,  Wheezing,  Whistling,  High-blowing,  and  Grunting,  being  the  re- 
sult of  alteration  of  structure,  or  disease  in  some  of  the  air-passages,  and 
interfering  with  the  perfect  freedom  of  breathing,  especially  when  the 
horse  is  put  on  his  speed,  without  doubt  constitute  unsoundness.  There 
are  decisions  to  the  contrary,  which  are  now  universally  admitted  to  be 
erroneous.     Broken-wind  is  decidedly  still  more  unsoundness. 

Crib-Biling. — Although  some  learned  judges  have  asserted  that  crib- 
biting  is  simply  a  trick  or  bad  habit,  it  must  be  regarded  as  unsound- 
ness. This  unnatural  sucking  in  of  the  air  must,  to  a  certain  degree, 
injure  digestion.  It  must  dispose  to  colic,  and  so  interfere  with  the 
strength,  usefulness,  and  health  of  the  horse.  Some  crib-biters  are  good 
goers,  but  they  probably  would  have  possessed  more  endurance  had 
they  not  acquired  this  habit;  and  it  is  a  fact  well  established  that,  as 
soon  as  a  horse  becomes  a  crib-biter,  he,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  loses 
condition.  In  its  very  early  stage  it  may  be  a  mere  trick — confirmed, 
it  must  have  produced  moi'bid  deterioration.  The  wear  of  the  front 
teeth,  and  the  occasional   breaking  of  them,  make  a  horse  old  before 


72  DOMESTIC    AINIMALS. 

his  time,  and  sometimes  render  it  difficult  or  impossible  for  him  to  graze, 
when  the  state  of  the  animal  or  the  convenience  of  the  owner  requires 
that  he  should  be  turned  out. 

Curb  constitutes  unsoundness  while  it  lasts,  and  perhaps  while  the 
swelling  remains,  although  the  inflammation  may  have  subsided;  for  a 
horse  that  has  once  thrown  out  a  curb  is,  for  a  while  at  least,  very  liable 
to  do  so  again,  to  get  lame  in  the  same  place  on  the  slightest  extra  ex- 
ertion ;  or,  at  all  events,  he  would  there  first  fail  on  extraordinary  exer- 
tion. A  horse,  however,  is  not  returnable,  although  he  should  spring  a 
curb  five  minutes  after  the  purchase;  for  it  is  done  in  a  moment,  and 
does  not  necessarily  indicate  any  previous  unsoundness  or  weakness  of 
the  part. 

Cutting,  as  rendering  a  horse  liable  to  serious  injury  of  the  legs,  and 
indicating  that  he  is  either  weak,  or  has  an  awkwardness  of  gait  incon- 
sistent with  safety,  produces,  rather  than  this,  unsoundness.  Many 
horses  go  lame  for  a  considerable  period  after  cutting  themselves  severe- 
ly ;  and  others  have  dropped  from  the  sudden  agony,  and  endangered 
themselves  and  their  riders.  As  some  doubt,  however,  exists  on  this 
subject,  and  as  it  is  a  very  material  objection  to  a  horse,  cutting,  when 
evident,  should  have  its  serious  consequences  provided  against  by  a  spe- 
cial warranty. 

Enlarged  Glands. — The  enlargement  of  the  glands  under  the  jaw  has 
not  been  so  much  considered  as  it  ought  to  have  been  in  our  estimate 
of  the  soundness  of  the  horse.  Simple  catarrh  will  occasionally,  and 
severe  affection  of  the  chest  will  generally,  be  accompanied  by  swelling 
of  these  glands,  which  does  not  subside  for  a  considerable  time  after  the 
cold  or  fever  has  apparently  been  cured.  To  slight  enlargements  of  the 
glands  under  the  jaw  much  attention  need  not  be  paid;  but  if  they  are 
of  considerable  size,  and  especially  if  they  are  tender,  and  the  glands  at 
the  root  of  the  ear  partake  of  the  enlargement,  and  the  membrane  of 
the  nose  is  redder  than  it  should  be,  w^e  should  hesitate  in  pronouncing 
that  horse  to  be  sound.  We  must  consider  the  swelling  as  a  symptom 
of  disease. 

Enlarged  Hock. — A  horse  with  enlarged  hock  is  unsound,  the  structure 
of  this  complicated  joint  being  so  materially  affected  that,  although 
the  horse  may  appear  for  a  considerable  time  to  be  capable  of  ordinary 
work,  he  will  occasionally  fail  even  in  that,  and  a  few  days'  hard  work 
will  always  lame  him. 

The  Eyes. — That  inflammation  of  the  eye  of  the  horse  which  usually 
terminates  in  blindness  of  one  or  both  eyes,  has  the  peculiar  character 
of  receding  or  disappearing  for  a  time,  once  or  twice,  or  thrice,  before 
it  fully  runs  its  course.  The  eye,  after  an  attack  of  inflammation,  re- 
gains so  nearly  its  former  natural  brilliancy,  that  a  person  even  well  ac- 
quainted with  horses  will  not  always  recognize  the  traces  of  former  dis- 
ease. After  a  time,  however,  the  inflammation  returns,  and  the  result 
is  inevitable.  A  horse  that  has  had  one  attack  of  this  complaint  is  long 
afterward  unsound,  however  perfect  the  eye  may  seem  to  be,  because  he 
carries  about  with  him  a  disease  that  will  probably  again  break  out,  and 
eventually  destroy  the  sight.  Whether,  therefore,  he  may  be  rejected 
or  not  depends  on  the  possibility  of  proving  an  attack  of  inflammation 


THE    HOKSE.  73 

of  tlie  eye  prior  to  the  purchase.  Next  to  direct  evidence  of  this  are 
appearances  about  the  eye,  of  which  the  veterinary  surgeon  at  least  ought 
not  to  be  ignorant.  They  consist  chiefly  of  a  puckering  of  the  lids 
toward  the  inner  corner  of  one  or  both  eyes — a  diflference  in  the  size  of 
the  eyes,  although  perhaps  only  a  slight  one,  and  not  discovered  except 
it  be  looked  for — a  gloominess  of  the  eye — a  dullness  of  the  iris — a  lit- 
tle dullness  of  the  transparent  part  of  the  eye  generally — a  minute, 
faint,  dusky  spot  deep  in  the  eye,  and  generally  with  little  radiations  of 
white  lines  proceeding  from  it.  If  these  symptoms,  or  the  majority  of 
them,  existed  at  the  time  of  purchase,  the  animal  had  assuredly  been 
diseased  before,  and  was  unsound.  Starting  has  been  considered  as  un- 
equivocal proof.  It  is  usually  an  indication  of  defective  sight,  but  it  is 
occasionally  a  trick.  Connected,  however,  with  the  appearances  just 
described,  it  is  a  very  strong  corroborative  proof. 

Lameness,  from  whatever  cause  arising,  is  unsoundness.  However  tem- 
porary it  may  be,  or  however  obscure,  there  must  be  disease  which  les- 
sens the  utility  of  the  horse,  and  renders  him  unsound  for  the  time.  So 
says  common  sense,  but  there  are  contradictory  decisions  on  the  case. 
"A  horse  laboring  under  a  temporary  injury  or  hurt,  which  is  capable 
of  being  speedily  cured  or  removed,  is  not,  according  to  Chief  Justice 
Eyre,  an  unsound  horse ;  and  where  a  warranty  is  made  that  such  a 
horse  is  sound,  it  is  made  without  any  view  to  such  an  injury;  nor  is  a 
horse  so  circumstanced  within  the  meaning  of  the  warranty.  To  vitiate 
the  warranty,  the  injury  the  horse  had  sustained,  or  the  malady  under 
which  he  labored,  ought  to  be  of  a  permanent  nature,  and  not  such  as 
may  arise  from  a  temporai-y  injury  or  accident." 

On  the  contrary,  Lord  Ellenborough  says:  "I  have  always  held,  and 
now  hold,  that  a  warranty  of  soundness  is  broken,  if  the  animal  at  the 
time  of  sale  has  any  infirmity  upon  him  wdiich  renders  him  less  fit  for 
present  service.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  disorder  should  be  perma- 
nent or  incurable.  AVhile  a  horse  has  a  cough  he  is  unsound,  although 
it  may  either  be  temporary  or  may  prove  mortal.  The  horse  in  ques- 
tion having  been  lame  at  the  time  of  sale,  when  he  was  warranted  to 
be  sound,  his  condition  subsequently  is  no  defense  to  the  action.*  The 
decision  of  Mr.  Baron  Parke,  already  referred  to,  confirms  this  doc- 
trine. 

Neurotomy. — A  question  has  arisen  how  far  a  horse  that  has  under- 
gone the  operation  of  the  division  of  the  nerve  of  the  leg  and  has  re- 
covered from  the  lameness  with  which  he  was  before  aflfected,  and 
stands  his  work  well,  may  be  considered  to  be  sound.  Chief  Justice 
Best  held  such  a  horse  to  be  unsound,  and  in  our  opinion  there  cannot 
be  a  doubt  about  the  matter.  The  operation  of  neurotomy  docs  not 
remove  the  disease  causing  the  lameness,  but  only  the  sensation  of  pain. 
A  horse  on  whom  this  operation  has  been  performed  may  be  improved 
by  it — may  cease  to  be  lame — may  go  well  for  many  years;  but  there 
is  no  certainty  of  this,  and  he  is  unsound,  within  our  definition,  unless 
nature  gave  the  nerve  for  no  useful  purpose. 

Ossification  of  the  Lateral  CarllKlges  constitutes  unsoundness,  as  inter- 

*  4:  CAiiPBELL.  251,  Eltoci  vs.  Brogden, 


74:  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

fering  with  the  natural  expansion  of  the  foot,  and,  in  horses  of  quick 
work,  ahnost  universally  producing  lameness. 

Plimiced-Foot.  —  AVhen  the  union  between  the  horny  and  sensible 
laminae,  or  little  plates  of  the  foot  is  weakened,  and  the  coffin-bone  is 
let  down,  and  presses  upon  the  sole,  and  the  sole  yields  to  this  unnat- 
ural weight,  and  becomes  rounded,  and  is  brought  in  contact  with  the 
ground,  and  is  bruised  and  injured,  that  horse  must  be  unsound,  and 
unsound  forever,  because  there  are  no  means  by  which  we  can  raise  the 
coffin-bone  again  into  its  place. 

Quidding. — If  the  mastication  of  the  food  gives  pain  to  the  animal,  in 
consequence  of  soreness  of  the  mouth  or  throat,  he  will  drop  it  before 
it  is  perfectly  chewed.  This,  as  an  indication  of  disease,  constitutes 
unsoundness.  Quidding  sometimes  arises  from  irregularity  in  the  teeth, 
which  wound  the  cheek  with  their  sharp  edges;  or  a  protruding  tooth 
renders  it  impossible  for  the  horse  to  close  his  jaws  so  as  to  chew  his 
food  thoroughly.  Quidding  is  unsoundness  for  the  time;  but  the  un- 
soundness will  cease  when  the  teeth  are  properly  filed,  or  the  soreness 
or  other  cause  of  the  imperfect  chewing  removed. 

Quitter  is  manifestly  unsoundness. 

Ring-Bone. — Although  when  the  bony  tumor  is  small,  and  on  one  side 
only,  there  is  little  or  no  lameness — and  there  are  a  few  instances  in 
which  a  horse  with  ring-bone  has  worked  for  many  years  without  its  re- 
turn— yet  from  the  action  of  the  foot,  and  the  stress  upon  the  part,  the 
inflammation  and  the  formation  of  bone  may  acquire  a  tendency  to 
spread  so  rapidly,  that  we  must  pronounce  the  slightest  enlargement  of 
the  pasterns,  or  around  the  coronet,  to  be  a  cause  of  unsoundness. 

Sand-Crack  is  manifestly  unsoundness.  It  may,  however,  occur  with- 
out the  slightest  warning,  and  no  horse  can  be  rejected  on  account  of  a 
sand-crack  that  has  sprung  after  purchase.  Its  usual  cause  is  too  great 
brittleness  of  the  crust  of  the  hoof;  but  there  is  no  infallible  method 
of  detecting  this,  or  the  degree  in  which  it  must  exist  in  order  to  con- 
stitute unsoundness.  When  the  horn  round  the  bottom  of  the  foot  has 
chipped  oflf  so  much  that  only  a  skillful  smith  can  fasten  the  shoe  with- 
out pricking  the  horse,  or  even  when  there  is  a  tendency  in  the  horn 
to  chip  and  break  in  a  much  less  degree  than  this,  the  horse  is  unsound, 
for  the  brittleness  of  the  crust  is  a  disease  of  the  part,  or  it  is  such  an 
altered  structure  of  it  as  to  interfere  materially  with  the  usefulness  of 
the  animal. 

Spavin. — Bone  spavin,  comprehending  in  its  largest  sense  every  bony 
tumor  on  the  hock,  is  not  necessarily  unsoundness.  If  the  tumor  aflTccts 
in  the  slightest  degree  the  action  of  the  horse,  it  is  unsoundness  ; — even 
if  it  does  not,  it  is  seldom  safe  to  pronounce  it  otherwise  than  unsound- 
ness. But  it  may  possibly  be  (like  splint  in  the  fore-leg)  so  situated  as 
to  have  no  tendency  to  affect  the  action.  A  veterinary  surgeon  con- 
sulted on  the  purchase  will  not  always  reject  a  horse  because  of  such  a 
tumor,  llis  evidence  on  a  question  of  soundness  will  depend  on  the 
facts.  The  situation  and  history  of  the  tumor  may  be  such  as  to  ena- 
ble him  to  give  a  decisive  opinion  in  a  horse  going  sound,  but  not 
often. 

Bog  or  Blood  Spavin  is  unsoundness,  because,  although  it  may  not  be 


THE    HOKSE.  75 

productive  of  lameness  at  slow  work,  the  rapid  and  powerful  action  of 
the  hock  in  quicker  motion  will  produce  permanent,  yet  perhaps  not 
considerable  lameneSvS,  which  can  scarcely  ever  be  with  certainty  re- 
moved. 

Splint. — It  depends  entirely  on  the  situation  of  the  bony  tumor  on 
the  shank-bone,  whether  it  is  to  be  considered  as  unsoundness.  If  it  is 
not  in  the  neighborhood  of  any  joint,  so  as  to  interfere  with  its  action, 
and  if  it  does  not  press  upon  any  ligament  or  tendon,  it  may  be  no 
cause  of  unsoundness,  although  it  is  often  very  unsightly.  In  many 
cases,  it  may  not  lessen  the  capability  and  value  of  the  animal. 

Stringlialt. — This  singular  and  very  unpleasant  action  of  the  hind-leg 
is  decidedly  an  unsoundness.  It  is  an  irregular  communication  of  nerv- 
ous energy  to  some  muscle  of  the  thigh,  observable  when  the  horse  first 
comes  from  the  stable,  and  gradually  ceasing  on  exercise.  It  has  usually 
been  accompanied  by  a  more  than  common  degree  of  strength  and  en- 
durance. It  must,  however,  be  traced  to  some  morbid  alteration  of 
structure  or  function ;  and  it  rarely  or  never  fails  to  deteriorate  and 
gradually  wear  out  the  animal. 

Thickening  of  the  Back  Sinews. — Sufficient  attention  is  not  always  paid 
to  the  fineness  of  the  legs  of  the  horse.  If  the  flexor  tendons  have 
been  sprained,  so  as  to  produce  considerable  thickening  of  the  cellular 
substance  in  which  their  sheaths  are  enveloped,  they  will  long  after- 
ward, or  perhaps  always,  be  liable  to  sprain,  from  causes  by  which  they 
would  otherwise  be  scarcely  affected.  The  continuance  of  any  consid- 
erable thickness  around  the  sheaths  of  the  tendons  indicates  previous 
violent  sprain.  This  very  thickening  will  fetter  the  action  of  the  ten- 
dons, and,  after  much  quick  work,  will  occasionally  renew  the  inflamma- 
tion and  the  lameness;  therefore  such  a  horse  cannot  be  sound.  It  re- 
quires, however,  a  little  discrimination  to  distinguish  this  from  the  gum- 
miness  or  roundness  of  leg  peculiar  to  some  breeds.  There  should  be  an 
evident  difference  between  the  injured  leg  and  the  other. 

Thoroughpin,  except  it  is  of  great  size,  is  rarely  productive  of  lame- 
ness, and  therefore  cannot  be  termed  unsoundness;  but  as  it  is  the  con- 
sequence of  hard  work,  and  now  and  then  does  produce  lameness,  the 
hock  should  be  most  carefully  examined,  and  there  should  be  a  special 
warranty  against  it. 

Thrush. — There  are  various  cases  on  record  of  actions  on  account  of 
thrush  in  horses,  and  the  decisions  have  been  much  at  variance,  or 
perfectly  contradictory.  Thrush  has  not  been  always  considered  by  legal 
men  as  unsoundness.  We,  however,  decidedly  so  consider  it ;  as  being 
a  disease  interfering  and  likely  to  interfere  with  the  usefulness  of  the 
horse.  Thrush  is  inflammation  of  the  lower  surface  of  the  inner  or 
sensible  frog — and  the  secretion  or  throwing  out  of  pus — almost  in- 
variably accompanied  by  a  slight  degree  of  tenderness  of  the  frog  itself, 
or  of  the  heel  a  little  above  it,  and,  if  neglected,  leading  to  diminution 
of  the  substance  of  the  frog,  and  separation  of  the  horn  from  parts 
beneath  and  underrunning,  and  the  production  of  fungus  and  canker, 
and  ultimately  a  diseased  state  of  the  foot,  destructive  of  the  present 
and  dangerous  to  the  future  usefulness  of  the  horse. 

AVindgalls. — There  are  few  horses  perfectly  free  from  windgalls,  but 


76  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

they  do  not  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  fetlock,  or  cause  lameness, 
except  -w'hen  they  are  numerous  or  large.  They  constitute  unsoundness 
only  when  they  cause  lameness,  or  are  so  large  and  numerous  as  to  ren- 
der it  likely  that  they  will  cause  it. 

In  the  purchase  of  a  horse,  the  buyer  usually  receives,  embodied  in 
the  receipt,  what  is  termed  a  warranty.     It  should  be  thus  expressed  : 

**  Received  of  A  B  two  hundred  dollars  for  a  gray  mare,  warranted  only  five 
years  old.  sound,  free  from  vice,  and  quiet  to  ride  or  drive. 

"$200.  "CD." 

A  receipt  including  merely  the  word  "  warranted"  extends  only  to 
soundness;  "warranted  sound"  goes  no  farther;  the  age,  freedom  from 
vice,  and  quietness  to  ride  and  drive,  should  be  especially  named.  This 
warranty  comprises  every  cause  of  unsoundness  tliat  can  be  detected,  or 
that  lurks  in  the  constitution  at  the  time  of  sale,  and  to  every  vicious 
habit  that  the  animal  has  hitherto  shown.  To  establish  a  breach  of 
warranty,  and  to  be  enabled  to  tender  a  return  of  the  horse  and  recover 
the  difference  of  price,  the  purchaser  must  prove  that  it  was  unsound 
or  viciously  disposed  at  the  time  of  sale.  In  case  of  cough,  the  horse 
must  have  been  heard  to  cough  immediately  after  the  purchase,  or  as 
he  was  led  home,  or  as  soon  as  he  had  entered  the  stable  of  the  pur- 
chaser. Coughing,  even  on  the  following  morning,  will  not  be  sufficient ; 
for  it  is  possible  that  he  might  have  caught  cold  by  change  of  stabling. 
If  he  is  lame,  it  must  be  proved  to  arise  from  a  cause  that  existed  be- 
fore the  animal  was  in  the  purchaser's  possession.  No  price  will  imply 
a  warranty,  or  be  equivalent  to  one  ;  there  must  be  an  express  warranty. 
A  fraud  must  be  proved  in  the  seller,  in  order  that  the  buyer  may  be 
enabled  to  return  the  horse  or  maintain  an  action  for  the  price.  The 
warranty  should  be  given  at  the  time  of  sale.  A  warranty,  or  a  promise 
to  warrant  the  horse  given  at  any  period  antecedent  to  the  sale,  is  invalid, 
for  horse-flesh  is  a  very  perishable  commodity,  and  the  constitution  and 
usefulness  of  the  animal  may  undergo  a  considerable  change  in  the 
space  of  a  few  days.  A  warranty  after  the  sale  is  invalid,  for  it  is  given 
without  any  legal  consideration.  In  order  to  complete  the  purchase, 
there  must  be  a  transfer  of  the  animal,  or  a  memorandum  of  agreement, 
or  the  payment  of  the  earnest-money.  The  least  sum  will  suffice  for 
earnest.  Xo  verbal  promise  to  buy  or  to  sell  is  binding  without  one  of 
these.  The  moment  either  of  these  is  effected,  the  legal  transfer  of  prop- 
erty or  delivery  is  made,  and,  whatever  may  happen  to  the  horse,  the 
seller  retains,  or  is  entitled  to  the  money.  If  the  purchaser  exercises 
any  act  of  ownership,  by  using  the  animal  without  leave  of  the  vender, 
or  by  having  any  operation  performed,  or  any  medicine  given  to  liim,  he 
makes  him  his  own.  The  warranty  of  a  servant  is  considered  to  be 
binding  on  the  master. 

If  the  horse  should  be  afterward  discovered  to  have  been  unsound  at 
the  time  of  warranty,  the  buyer  may  tender  a  return  of  it,  and,  if  it  be 
not  taken  back,  may  bring  his  action  for  the  price ;  but  the  seller  is  not 
bound  to  rescind  the  contract,  unless  he  has  agreed  so  to  do. 

Although  there  is  no  legal  compulsion  to  give  immediate  notice  to  tlie 
seller  of  the  discovered  unsoundness,  it  will  be  better  to  have  it  done. 


THE    HOKSE;  •  77 

The  animal  should  then  be  tendered  at  the  house  or  stable  of  the  vender. 
If  he  refuses  to  receive  him,  the  animal  may  be  sent  to  a  livery-stable 
and  sold,  and  an  action  for  the  difference  in  price  may  be  brought.  The 
keep,  however,  can  be  recovered  only  for  the  time  that  necessarily  in- 
tervened between  the  tender  and  the  determination  of  the  action.  It  is 
not  legally  necessary  to  tender  a  return  of  the  horse  as  soon  as  the  un- 
soundness is  discovered.  The  animal  may  be  kept  for  a  reasonable  time 
afterward,  and  even  proper  medical  means  used  to  remove  the  unsound- 
ness; but  courtesy,  and  indeed  justice,  will  require  that  the  notice  should 
be  given  as  soon  as  possible.  Although  it  is  stated,  on  the  authority 
of  Lord  Loughborough,  that  "  no  length  of  time  elapsed  after  the  sale 
will  alter  the  nature  of  a  contract  originally  false,"  yet  it  seems  to  have 
been  once  thought  it  Avas  necessary  to  the  action  to  give  notice  of  the 
unsoundness  in  a  reasonable  time.  The  cause  of  action  is  certainly  com- 
plete on  breach  of  the  warranty. 

It  used  to  be  supposed  that  the  buyer  had  no  right  to  have  the  horse 
medically  treated,  and  that  he  would  waive  the  warranty  by  doing  so. 
The  question,  however,  would  be,  has  he  injured  or  diminished  the 
value  of  the  horse  by  this  treatment?  It  will  generally  be  prudent 
for  him  to  refrain  from  all  medical  treatment,  because  the  means  adopt- 
ed, however  skillfully  employed,  may  have  an  unfortunate  effect,  or  may 
be  misrepresented  by  ignorant  or  interested  observers. 

The  purchaser  possibly  may  like  the  horse,  notwithstanding  his  dis- 
covered defect,  and  he  may  retain,  and  bring  his  action  for  the  depre- 
ciation in  value  on  account  of  the  unsoundness.  Faw,  however,  will  do 
this,  because  his  retaining  the  horse  will  cause  a  suspicion  that  the  de- 
fect was  of  no  great  consequence,  and  will  give  rise  to  much  cavil  about 
the  quantum  of  damages,  and,  after  all,  very  slight  damages  will  prob- 
ably be  obtained.  "  I  take  it  to  be  clear  law,"  says  Lord  Eldon,  "  that 
if  a  person  purchases  a  horse  that  is  warranted,  and  it  afterward  turns 
out  that  the  horse  was  unsound  at  the  time  of  warranty,  the  buyer  may, 
if  he  pleases,  keep  the  horse,  and  bring  an  action  on  the  warranty ;  in 
which  he  will  have  a  right  to  recover  the  difference  between  the  value 
of  a  sound  horse  and  one  with  such  defects  as  existed  at  the  time  of 
warranty ;  or  he  may  return  the  horse,  and  bring  an  action  to  recover 
the  full  money  ;  but,  in  the  latter  case,  the  seller  has  a  right  to  expect 
that  the  horse  shall  be  returned  to  him  in  the  same  state  he  was  when 
sold,  and  not  by  any  means  diminished  in  value;  for  if  a  person  keep  a 
warranted  article  for  any  length  of  time  after  discovering  its  defects, 
and  when  he  returns  it,  it  is  in  a  worse  state  than  it  would  have  been  if 
returned  immediately  after  such  discovery,  I  think  the  party  can  have 
no  defense  to  an  action  for  the  price  of  the  article  on  the  ground  of 
non-compliance  with  the  warranty,  but  must  be  left  to  his  action  on  the 
warranty  to  recover  the  diflerence  in  the  value  of  the  article  warranted, 
and  its  value  when  sold.* 

Where  there  is  no  warranty,  an  action  may  be  brought  on  the  ground 
of  fraud;  but  this  is  very  diihcult  to  be  maintained,  and  not  often  haz- 
arded.    It  will  be  necessary  to  prove  that  the  dealer  knew  the  defect, 

*  Curtis  i's.  Hannaj,  3  Esp.  83. 


78  DOMESTIC    A^niALS. 

and  that  the  purchaser  was  imposed  upon  by  his  false  representation,  or 
other  fraudulent  means.  If  the  defect  was  evident  to  every  eye,  the 
purchaser  has  no  remedy — he  should  have  taken  more  care ;  but  if  a 
warranty  was  given,  that  extends  to  all  unsoundness,  palpable  or  con- 
cealed. Although  a  person  should  ignorantly  or  carelessly  buy  a  blind 
horse,  warranted  sound,  he  may  reject  it — the  warranty  is  his  guard, 
and  prevents  him  from  so  closely  examining  the  horse  as  he  otherwise 
would  have  done  ;  but  if  he  buys  a  blind  horse,  thinking  him  to  be 
sound,  and  without  a  warranty,  he  has  no  remedy.  Every  one  ought  to 
exercise  common  circumspection  and  common  sense. 

A  man  should  have  a  more  perfect  knowledge  of  horses  than  falls  to 
the  lot  of  most,  and  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  vender  too,  who  ven- 
tures to  buy  a  horse  without  a  warranty. 

If  a  person  buys  a  horse  warranted  sound,  and  discovering  no  defect 
in  him,  and,  relying  on  the  warranty,  resells  him,  and  the  unsoundness 
is  discovered  by  the  second  purchaser,  and  the  horse  returned  to  the 
first  purchaser,  or  an  action  commenced  against  him,  he  has  his  claim 
on  the  first  seller,  and  may  demand  of  him  not  only  the  price  of  the 
horse,  or  the  diff"erence  in  value,  but  every  expense  that  may  have  been 
incurred. 

Absolute  exchanges,  of  one  horse  for  another,  or  a  sum  of  money 
being  paid  in  addition  by  one  of  the  parties,  stand  on  the  same  ground 
as  simple  sales.  If  there  is  a  warranty  on  either  side,  and  that  is  bro- 
ken, an  action  may  be  maintained  :  if  there  be  no  warranty,  deceit 
must  be  proved. 

The  trial  of  horses  on  sale  often  leads  to  disputes.  The  law  is  per- 
fectly clear,  but  the  application  of  it,  as  in  other  matters  connected  with 
horse-flesh,  attended  with  glorious  uncertainty.  The  intended  purcha- 
ser is  only  liable  for  damage  done  to  the  horse  through  his  own  mis- 
conduct. The  seller  may  put  what  restriction  he  chooses  on  the  trial, 
and  takes  the  risks  of  all  accidents  in  the  fair  use  of  the  horse  within 
such  restrictions. 

If  a  horse  from  a  dealer's  stable  is  galloped  far  and  fast,  it  is  probable 
that  he  will  soon  show  distress;  and  if  he  is  pushed  farther,  inflamma- 
tion and  death  may  ensue.  The  dealer  rarely  gets  recompensed  for 
this;  nor  ought  he,  as  he  knows  the  unfitness  of  his  horse,  and  may 
thank  himself  for  permitting  such  a  trial ;  and  if  it  should  occur  soon 
after  the  sale,  he  runs  the  risk  of  having  the  horse  returned,  or  of  an 
action  for  its  price. 

It  is  proper,  however,  to  put  a  limit  to  what  has  been  too  frequently 
asserted  from  the  bench,  that  a  horse  warranted  sound  must  be  taken 
as  fit  for  immediate  use,  and  capable  of  being  immediately  put  to  any 
fair  work  the  owner  chooses.  A  hunter  honestly  warranted  sound  is 
certainly  warranted  to  be  in  immediate  condition  to  follow  the  hounds. 
The  mysteries  of  condition,  as  has  been  shown  in  a  former  part  of  the 
work,  are  not  sufficiently  unraveled. 

One  of  the  regulations  of  the  Bazaar  in  King  Street  was  exceedingly 
fair,  both  with  regard  to  the  previous  owner  and  the  purchaser,  viz. — 

"  When  a  horse,  having  been  warranted  sound,  shall  be  returned 
withm  the  prescribed  period,  on  account  of  unsoundness,  a  certificate 


THE   HORSE.  79 

from  a  veterinary  snrgeon,  particularly  describing  the  unsoundness, 
must  accompany  the  horse  so  returned  ;  when,  if  it  be  agreed  to  by  the 
veterinary  surgeon  of  the  establishment,  the  amount  received  for  the 
horse  shall  be  immediately  paid  back;  but  if  the  veterinary  surgeon  of 
the  establishment  should  not  confirm  the  certificate,  then,  in  order  to 
avoid  further  dispute,  one  of  the  veterinary  surgeons  of  the  college 
shall  be  called  in,  and  his  decision  shall  be  final,  and  the  expense  of 
such  umpire  shall  be  borne  by  the  party  in  error." 

DISEASES  OP  THE  HORSE  AND  THEIR  TREATMENT.— This  work,  not 
being  prepared  for  the  veterinary  practitioner,  but  for  all  horse  owners, 
our  aim,  therefore,  in  arranging  this  part  of  it  will  be  to  make  them 
acquainted  with  the  causes,  nature,  and  remedies  of  the  diseases  of  the 
horse,  so  that  they  may  avoid  the  causes,  detect  the  existence  of  disease, 
and  themselves  apply  the  remedies,  or  secure  their  application  by  ex- 
perienced persons. 

It  may  be  readily  supposed  that  the  animal  doomed  to  the  manner 
of  living  which  every  variety  of  the  horse  experiences,  will  be  peculiarly 
exposed  to  numerous  forms  of  suffering ;  every  natural  evil  will  be 
aggravated,  and  many  new  and  formidable  sources  of  pain  and  death 
will  be  superadded. 

The  principal  diseases  of  the  horse  are  connected  with  the  circulatory 
system.  From  the  state  of  habitual  excitement  in  which  the  animal  is 
kept,  in  order  to  enable  him  to  execute  his  task,  the  heart  and  blood- 
vessels will  often  act  too  impetuously  ;  the  vital  fluid  will  be  hurried  along 
too  rapidly,  either  through  the  frame  generally,  or  some  particular  part 
of  it,  and  there  will  be  congestion^  accumulation  of  blood  in  that  part, 
or  inJlammatio7i,  either  local  or  general,  disturbing  the  functions  of 
some  organ,  or  of  the  whole  frame. 

Congestion. — Take  a  young  horse  on  his  first  entrance  into  the  stables ; 
feed  him  somewhat  highly,  and  what  is  the  consequence  ?  He  has 
swellings  of  the  legs,  or  inflammation  of  the  joints,  or  perhaps  of  the 
lungs.  Take  a  horse  that  has  lived  somewhat  above  his  work,  and  gal- 
lop him  to  the  top  of  his  speed  :  his  nervous  system  becomes  highly 
excited — the  heart  beats  with  fearful  rapidity — the  blood  is  pumped 
into  the  lungs  faster  than  they  can  discharge  it — the  pulmonary  vessels 
become  gorged,  fatigued,  and  utterly  powerless — the  blood,  arrested  in 
in  its  course,  becomes  viscid,  and  death  speedily  ensues.  We  have  but 
one  chance  of  saving  our  patient — the  instantaneous  and  copious  extrac- 
tion of  blood  ;  and  only  one  means  of  preventing  the  recurrence  of  this 
dangerous  state ;  namely,  not  suffering  too  great  an  accumulation  of 
the  sanguineous  fluid  by  over-feeding,  and  by  regular  and  systematic 
exercise,  which  will  inure  the  circulatory  vessels  to  prompt  and  eflScient 
action  when  they  are  suddenly  called  upon  to  exert  themselves.  This 
is  an  extreme  case,  but  the  cause  and  the  remedy  are  sufficiently  plain. 

Again,  the  brain  has  functions  of  the  most  important  nature  to  dis- 
charge, and  more  blood  flows  through  it  than  through  any  other  por- 
tion of  the  frame  of  equal  bulk.  In  order  to  prevent  this  organ  from 
being  oppressed  by  a  too  great  determination  of  blood  to  it,  the  vessels 
although  numerous,  are  small,  and  pursue  a  very  circuitous  and  winding 
course.     If  a  horse  highly  fed  and  full  of  blood  is  suddenly  and  sharply 


80  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

exercised,  the  course  of  the  blood  is  accelerated  in  every  direction,  and 
to  the  brain  among  other  parts.  The  vessels  that  ramify  on  its  surface, 
or  penetrate  its  substance,  are  completely  distended  and  gorged  with  it; 
perhaps  they  are  ruptured,  and  the  effused  blood  presses  upon  the  brain  ; 
it  presses  upon  the  origins  of  the  nerves,  on  which  sensation  and  motion 
depend,  and  the  animal  suddenly  drops  powerless.  A  prompt  and 
copious  abstraction  of  blood  ;  or,  in  other  words,  a  diminution  of  this 
pressure,  can  alone  save  the  patient.  Here  is  the  nature,  the  cause, 
and  the  treatment  of  apoplexy. 

Sometimes  this  disease  assumes  a  different  form.  The  horse  has  not 
been  performing  more  than  his  ordinary  work,  or  perhaps  he  may  not 
have  been  out  of  the  stable.  He  is  found  with  his  head  drooping  and 
his  vision  impaired.  He  is  staggering  about.  He  falls,  and  lies  half 
unconscious,  or  he  struggles  violently  and  dangerously.  There  is  the 
same  congestion  of  blood  in  the  head,  the  same  pressure  on  the  nervous 
organs,  but  produced  by  a  different  cause.  He  has  been  accustomed 
habitually  to  overload  his  stomach,  or  he  was,  on  the  previous  day,  kept 
too  long  without  his  food,  and  then  he  fell  ravenously  upon  it,  and  ate 
until  his  stomach  w^as  completely  distended  and  unable  to  propel  for- 
ward its  accumulated  contents.  Thus  distended,  its  blood-vessels  are 
compressed,  and  the  circulation  through  them  is  impeded  or  altogether 
suspended.  The  blood  is  still  forced  on  by  the  heart,  and  driven  in  ac- 
cumulated quantity  to  other  organs,  and  to  the  brain  among  the  rest,  and 
there  congestion  takes  place,  as  just  described,  and  the  animal  becomes 
sleepy,  unconscious,  and  if  he  is  not  speedily  relieved,  he  dies.  This, 
too,  is  apoplexy :  the  horseman  calls  it  stomach  staggers.  Its  cause  is 
improper  feeding.  The  division  of  the  hours  of  labor,  and  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  nose-hag^  have  much  diminished  the  frequency  of  its  occur- 
rence. The  remedies  are  plain  :  bleeding,  physicking,  and  the  rem^oval 
of  the  contents  of  the  stomach  by  means  of  a  pump  contrived  for  that 
purpose. 

Congestions  of  other  kinds  occasionally  present  thernselves.  It  is  no 
uncommon  thing  for  the  blood  to  loiter  in  the  comphcated  vessels  of 
the  liver,  until  the  covering  of  that  viscus  has  burst,  and  an  accumula- 
tion of  coagulated  black  blood  has  presented  itself.  This  congestion 
constitutes  the  swelled  legs  to  which  so  many  horses  are  subject  when 
they  stand  too  long  idle  in  the  stable  ;  and  it  is  a  source  of  many  of  the 
accumulations  of  serous  fluid  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  and  particu- 
larly in  the  chest,  the  abdomen,  and  the  brain. 

Illflamniation  is  opposed  to  congestion,  as  consisting  in  an  active  state 
of  the  capillary  arterial  vessels ;  the  blood  rushes  through  them  with 
far  greater  rapidity  than  in  health,  from  the  excited  state  of  the  nervous 
system  by  which  they  are  supplied. 

Inflammation  is  either  local  or  diffused.  It  may  be  confined  to  one 
organ,  or  a  particular  portion  of  that  organ  ;  it  may  involve  many 
neighboring  ones,  or  it  may  be  spread  over  the  whole  frame.  In  the  lat- 
ter case  it  assumes  the  name  o{  fever.  Fever  is  general  or  constitutional 
inflammation,  and  it  is  said  to  be  sympath'€tic  or  symptomatic  when  it 
can  be  traced  to  some  local  affection  or  cause,  and  idiopathic  when  we 
cannot  so  trace  it.     The  truth  probably  is,  that  every  fever  has  its  local 


THE    HOESE.  81 

cause ;  but  we  have  not  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  the  animal  economy 
to  discover  tliat  cause. 

Inflammation  may  be  considered  with  reference  to  the  membranes 
which  it  attacks. 

Tlie  mucous  mejiihrancs  line  all  the  cavities  that  communicate  with 
the  external  surface  of  the  body.  There  is  frequent  inflammation  of  the 
membrane  of  the  mouth.  Blain^  or  Ghjsijnthrax^h?i\Q^\Q,\\\-civ  enlaro'e- 
ment  which  runs  alono;  the  side  of  the  tongue.  Its  cause  is  unknown. 
It  should  be  lanced  freely  and  deeply,  and  some  aperient  medicine 
administered.  Barbs,  or  paps,  are  smaller  enlargements,  found  more  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  bridle  of  the  tongue.  They  should  never  be 
touched  with  any  instrument :  a  little  cooling  medicine  will  generally 
remove  them.  Lampas  is  inliammation  of  the  palate,  or  enlargement 
of  the  bars  of  the  palate.  The  roof  of  the  mouth  maybe  slightly 
lanced,  or  a  little  aperient  medicine  administered;  but  the  sensibility  of 
the  mouth  should  never  be  destroyed  by  the  application  of  the  heated 
iron.  Canker  and  wounds  in  the  mouth,  from  various  causes,  will  be 
best  remedied  by  diluted  tincture  of  myrrh,  or  a  weak  solution  of  alum. 

Foreign  Bodies  in  the  Gullet  may  be  generally  removed  by  means  of  the 
probang  used  in  the  hove  of  cattle;  or  the  oesophagus  may  be  opened, 
and  the  obstructing  body  taken  out. 

It  is  on  the  mucous  membranes  i\\?ii  poisons  principally  exert  their 
influence.  The  yeiv  is  the  most  frequent  vegetable  poison.  The  horse 
may  be  saved  by  timely  recourse  to  equal  parts  of  vinegar  and  water 
ejected  into  the  stomach,  after  the  poison  has  been  as  much  as  possible 
removed  by  means  of  the  stomach-pump.  For  arsenic  or  corrosive 
sublimate  there  is  rarely  any  antidote. 

Spasmodic  Colic  is  too  frequently  produced  by  exposure  to  cold,  the 
drinking  of  cold  water,  or  the  use  of  too  much  green  food.  The  horse 
should  be  walked  about,  strong  friction  used  to  the  belly,  and  spirit  of 
turpentine  given  in  doses  of  two  ounces,  with  an  ounce  each  of  lauda- 
num and  spirit  of  nitrous  ether,  in  warm  water,  ale,  or  gruel.  If  the 
spasm  is  not  soon  relieved,  the  animal  should  be  bled,  and  injections  of 
warm  water  with  a  solution  of  aloes  thrown  up,  if  constipation  exists. 
This  spasmodic  action  of  the  bowels,  when  long  continued,  is  liable  to 
produce  introsusception,  or  entanglement,  of  them  ;  and  the  case  is  then 
hopeless. 

Superpurgation  often  follows  the  administration  of  a  too  strong  or  im- 
proper dose  of  physic.  The  torture  which  it  produces  will  be  evident 
by  the  agonized  expression  of  the  countenance,  and  the  frequent  look- 
ing at  the  flanks.  Plenty  of  thin  starch  or  arrowroot  should  be  given 
both  by  the  mouth  and  by  injection  ;  and,  twelve  hours  having  passed 
without  relief  being  experienced,  chalk,  catechu,  and  opium  should  be 
added  to  the  gruel. 

Worms  in  the  intestines  are  not  often  productive  of  much  mischief, 
except  they  exist  in  very  great  quantities.  Small  doses  of  emetic  tartar 
or  calomel^  with  a  little  ginger,  may  be  given  to  the  horse  half  an  hour 
before  his  first  meal,  in  order  to  expel  the  round  white  worm  ;  it  must 
be  worked  off  with  linseed-oil  or  aloes,  and  injections  of  linseed-oil  or 
aloes  will  usually  remove  the  ascarides,  or  needle-worms. 
4* 


O^  DOMESTIC    ANESIALS. 

The   Respiratory  Passages    are   all    lined  by  the  mncons  raetnbrane. 

Catarrh^  or  cold^  inflammation  of  the  upper  air  passages,  should  never 
be  long  neglected.  A  few  mashes  or  a  little  medicine  will  usually  re- 
move it.  If  it  is  neglected,  and  occasionally  in  defiance  of  all  treat- 
ment, it  will  degenerate  into  other  diseases.  The  larynx  may  become 
the  principal  seat  of  inflammation.  Larynr/itis  will  be  shown  by  ex- 
treme diflSculty  of  breathing,  accompanied  by  a  strange  roaring  noise, 
and  an  evident  enlargement  and  great  tenderness  of  the  larynx  when 
felt  externally.  The  windpipe  must  be  opened  in  such  case,  and  the  best 
advice  will  be  necessary.  Sometimes  the  subdivisions  of  the  trachea, 
before  or  when  it  first  enters  the  lungs,  will  be  the  part  aflfected,  and  we 
have  bronchitis.  This  is  characterized  by  a  quick  and  hard  breathing, 
and  a  peculiar  wheezing  sound,  with  the  coughing  up  of  mucus.  Here, 
too,  decisive  measures  must  be  adopted,  and  a  skillful  practitioner  em- 
ployed. His  assistance  is  equally  necessary  in  distemper^  influenza,  and 
epidemic  catarrh,  names  indicating  varieties  of  the  same  disease,  and 
the  product  of  atmospheric  influence;  diff"ering  to  a  certain  degree  in 
every  season,  but  in  all  characterized  by  intense  inflammation  of  the 
mucous  surfaces,  and  rapid  and  utter  prostration  of  strength,  and  in  all 
demanding  the  abatement  of  that  inflammation,  and  yet  little  expendi- 
ture of  vital  power. 

Cough  may  degenerate  into  inflammation  of  the  lungs  ;  or  this  fear- 
ful malady  may  be  developed  without  a  single  premonitory  symptom, 
and  prove  fatal  in  twenty-four  or  even  in  twelve  hours.  It  is  mostly 
characterized  by  deathly  coldness  of  the  extremities,  expansion  of  the 
nostril,  redness  of  its  lining  membrane,  singularly  anxious  countenance, 
constant  gazing  at  the  flank,  and  an  unwillingness  to  move.  A  success- 
ful treatment  of  such  a  case  can  be  founded  only  on  the  most  prompt 
and  fearless  and  decisive  measures  ;  the  lancet  should  be  freely  used. 
Counter-irritants  should  follow  as  soon  as  the  violence  of  the  disease 
is  in  the  slightest  degree  abated  ;  sedatives  must  succeed  to  them  ;  and 
fortunate  will  he  be  who  often  saves  his  patient  after  all  the  decisive 
symptoms  of  pneumonia  are  once  developed. 

The  diseases  of  the  lungs  have  been  recently  carefully  investigated, 
and  we  are  enabled  to  detect  three  important  varieties  in  the  inflamma- 
tory affections  of  the  lungs  and  chest,  viz.,  congestive  inflammation  of 
the  lungs,  ox  pulmonary  apoplexy — pneiunonia^OT  true  inflammation  of 
the  lungs — and  pleurisy,  or  pleuritis.  The  first  consists  in  the  distention 
of  the  small  vessels  of  the  lungs  with  dark  venous  blood,  and  is  gener- 
ally produced  by  over-exertion,  particularly  if  the  animal,  when  attack- 
ed, is  not  in  proper  condition  for  work.  The  symptoms  are  rapid 
breathing,  cold  extremities,  and  short  duration  of  the  disease,  ending 
either  in  death  or  recovery.  When  death  supervenes,  the  lungs  are 
black.  With  regard  to  treatment,  bleeding  should  be  adopted  if  the 
pulse  is  distinct  as  well  as  rapid  ;  if  not,  a  diffusible  stimulant  should 
first  be  given  and  bleeding  should  follow. 

True  pneumonia  is  longer  in  its  duration,  but  the  symptoms  are  often 
obscure  at  first.  There  is  considerable  distress,  but  there  does  not  ap- 
pear to  be  any  active  pain  ;  and  in  this  respect  it  may  generally  be  dis- 
tinguished from  pleurisy.     The  j)alse  is  full,  strong,  and  rapid — pain, 


THE    HOUSE.  83 

sometimes  acute,  but  varying  from  time  to  time,  and  the  blood  present- 
ing a  considerable  quantity  of  butf,  or  fibrine.  The  tendencies  of  the 
disease  are  either  the  deposition  of  water  in  the  chest,  or  else  fibrous 
flakes,  and  sometimes  both  conjoined. 

Sometimes  pneumonia  and  pleurisy  are  combined  together,  causing 
pleuropneumonia^  aiid  then  the  danger  is  increased  at  the  same  time,  as 
the  symptoms  are  rendered  more  obscure. 

Blood-letting  is  one  of  the  first  of  our  remedial  measures  for  these 
diseases,  but  is  called  for  in  a  more  marked  degree  in  pleurisy  than  in 
pneumonia.  The  pulse,  however,  in  both  cases  must  be  our  guide  as  to 
the  quantity  to  be  taken ;  and,  as  stated  in  the  text,  a  decided  efi'ect 
should  be  obtained.  Repetition  of  bleeding,  too,  may  be  had  recourse 
to  with  greater  freedom,  in  pleurisy  than  in  pneumonia.  In  the  latter 
disease,  we  must  take  care  that  we  do  not  shipwreck  the  vital  powers 
by  repeated  and  too  copious  bleeding,  or  mistake  tiie  effects  produced 
by  bleeding  for  the  symptoms  of  the  disease  itself.  It  is  only  by  the 
conjoint  aids  of  science  and  experience  that  these  nice  discriminations 
can  be  made  ;  it  is  therefore  the  height  of  folly  for  the  inexperienced 
owner  to  attempt  to  treat  such  cases  himself. 

When  pleurisy  and  pneumonia  are  combined,  the  s3miptoms,  though 
extremely  severe,  are  yet  very  obscure,  and  the  chances  of  successful 
treatment  are  much  diminished.  The  water  in  the  chest  spoken  of  in 
the  text,  is  the  termination  of  pleurisy,  and  becomes  fatal  in  a  majority 
of  cases  (particularly  if,  in  addition  to  this  serous  fiuid,  flakes  of  lymph 
are  also  thrown  out.)  In  some  cases  where  water  in  the  chest  has 
supervened  early,  and  the  inflammation  has  otherwise  subsided,  relief 
Las  been  obtained  by  tapping. 

We  have  little  to  add  with  regard  to  the  treatment  of  these  inflam- 
matory diseases,  except  that  we  do  not  approve  of  many  repeated  bleed- 
ings. It  is  rarely  the  case  that  more  than  one  bleeding  is  desirable, 
but  this  in  general  should  be  very  copious.  The  best  guide  as  to  the 
propriety  of  bleeding  is  the  strength  of  the  pulse  and  not  its  frequency. 
If  some  hours  after  the  first  bleeding  the  pulse  is  still  strong  and  full, 
as  well  as  quick,  then  bleeding  is  most  probably  called  for  again,  and 
more  particularly  if  the  blood  has  exhibited  a  thick  buff"y  coat.  If  the 
first  bleeding  has  exhibited  no  butf  on  the  surface,  then  a  repetition  of 
bleeding  is  rarely  demanded.  Aloes  should  be  always  eschewed,  and 
diuretics  should  not  be  continued  after  twelve  drachms,  or  two  ounces 
of  nitre  or  resin  have  been  taken.  We  have  also  found  very  good 
eff'ects  from  the  administration  of  small  doses  of  calomel  and  opium, 
twice  a  day,  two  scruples  of  the  former,  and  one  of  the  latter,  being 
sufficient  for  a  dose ;  and  we  have  also  found  an  ounce  or  tw^o  of  the 
spirit  of  nitrous  ether  very  serviceable  in  the  early  stage  of  the  disease, 
particularly  if  the  legs  and  ears  are  cold. 

Among  the  consequences  of  these  severe  aff'ections  of  the  lungs,  are 
chronic  cough^  not  always  much  diminishing  the  usefulness  of  the  horse, 
but  strangely  aggravated  at  times  by  any  fresh  accession  of  catarrh,  and 
too  often  degenerating  into  thick  loind^  which  always  materially  inter- 
feres with  the  speed  of  the  horse,  and  in  a  great  proportion  of  cases 
terminates  in  broken  wind.     It  is  rare,  indeed,  that  either  of  theso  dis- 


84:  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

eases  admits  of  cure.  That  obstruction  in  some  part  of  tlie  respiratory 
canal,  which  varies  in  almost  every  horse,  and  produces  the  peculiar 
sound  termed  roaring^  is  also  rarely  removed.  There  are  as  many  degrees 
or  intonations  of  roaring,  as  there  are  notes  on  the  gamut ;  and  those 
notes  ascend  from  piano  to  forte.  This  renders  it  diflBcult  in  some  slight 
cases  to  decide  positively  whether  a  horse  is  a  roarer  or  not ;  and  good 
judges  may  be  mistaken.  The  state  of  the  animal  very  frequently  oc- 
casions an  impediment  to  an  accurate  decision;  if  he  be  in  very  ple- 
thoric condition,  he  will  not  unfrequently  give  slight  indications  of 
roaring;  but  when  he  is  divested  of  that  superabundance  of  fat,  all  the 
disagreeable  symptoms  disappear.  The  usual  test  of  startling  the  ani- 
mal, is  by  no  means  an  infallible  criterion,  neither  is  the  stethoscope  in 
all  cases  to  be  relied  upon.  There  is  but  one  positive  mode  of  determ- 
ining the  question  ;  the  animal  being  in  a  proper  condition,  he  must  be 
ridden  and  tried  in  all  his  paces.  With  stallions  this  proof  is  not  often 
practicable ;  and  unless  they  are  badly  affected,  it  is  often  impossible  to 
prove  that  they  are  roarers. 

Glanders,  the  most  destructive  of  all  the  diseases  to  which  the  horse  is 
exposed,  is  the  consequence  of  hreathinrf  the  atmosphere  of  foul  and  viti- 
ated stables.  It  is  the  winding  up  of  almost  every  other  disease,  and 
in  every  stage  it  is  most  contagious.  Its  most  prominent  symptoms 
are  a  small  but  constant  discharge  of  sticky  matter  from  the  nose  ;  an 
enlargement  and  induration  of  the  glands  beneath  and  within  the  lower 
jaw,  on  one  or  both  sides,  and,  before  the  termination  of  the  disease, 
chancrous  inflammation  of  the  nostril  on  the  same  side  with  the  en- 
larged gland.  Its  contagiousness  should  never  be  forgotten,  for  if  a  glan- 
dered  horse  is  once  introduced  into  a  stable,  almost  every  inhabitant  of 
that  stable  will  sooner  or  later  become  infected  and  die. 

If  some  persons  underrate  the  danger,  it  is  because  the  disease  may 
remain  unrecognized  in  the  infected  horse  for  some  months,  or  even 
years,  and  therefore,  when  it  appeai-s,  it  is  attributed  to  other  causes,  or 
to  after-inoculation.  No  glandered  horse  should  be  employed  on  any 
farm,  nor  should  a  glandered  horse  be  permitted  to  work  on  any  road, 
or  even  to  pasture  on  any  field.     He  should  be  destroyed. 

In  a  v>rell  settled  case  of  glanders  it  is  not  worth  while,  except  byway 
of  experiment  at  a  veterinary  school,  to  attempt  any  remedies.  The 
chances  of  cure  are  too  remote,  and  the  danger  of  infection  too  great. 

The  contagious  nature  of  glanders  is  very  well  known,  and  not  only 
is  it  so  with  regard  to  the  horse,  but  it  is  capable  of  being  communica- 
ted to  the  human  being  ;  and,  indeed,  there  have  been  very  many  deaths 
from  this  cause,  and  most  horrible  deaths  they  are.  It  is  generally  by 
means  of  some  cut  or  abrasion  which  comes  in  contact  with  the  gland- 
ered matter  that  the  infection  is  communicated.  The  utmost  caution 
should  therefore  be  exercised  by  the  attendants;  and  it  is  most  unpar- 
donable to  keep  glandered  horses  any  length  of  time  for  the  sake  of 
their  work;  and  we  are  scarcely  justified  in  tampering  long  with  them 
under  the  idea  of  eflecting  a  cure,  when  the  cases  are  decidedly  gland- 
ered. 

The  urinary  and  genital  organs  are  also  lined  by  mucous  membranes. 
The  horse  is  subject  to  inflammation  of  the  kidneys  from  eating  musty 


THE  IIOKSE.  85 

oats  or  mow-burnt  hay,  from  exposure  to  cold,  injuries  of  the  loins,  and 
the  imprudent  use  of  diuretics.  Bleeding,  physic  and  counter-irritants 
over  the  region  of  the  loins  should  be  had  recourse  to.  Diabetes  or 
profuse  staling  is  difficult  to  treat.  The  inflammation  that  may  exist 
should  first  be  subdued,  and  then  opium,  catechu,  and  the  Uva  ursi  ad- 
ministered. Inflammation  of  the  bladder  will  be  best  alleviated  by  mu- 
cilaginous drinks  of  almost  any  kind,  linseed-gruel  taking  precedence 
of  all  others.  Inflammation  of  the  neck  of  the  bladder,  evinced  by  the 
frequent  and  painful  discharge  of  small  quantities  of  urine  will  yield 
only  to  the  abstraction  of  blood  and  the  exhibition  of  opium.  A 
catheter  may  be  easily  passed  into  the  bladder  of  the  mare  and  urine 
evacuated;  but  it  will  require  a  skillful  veterinary  surgeon  to  eff'ect  this 
in  the  horse.  A  stone  in  the  bladder  is  readily  detected  by  the  prac- 
titioner, and  may  be  extracted  with  comparative  ease.  The  sheath  of 
the  penis  is  often  diseased  from  the  presence  of  corrosive  mucous  mat- 
ter.    This  may  easily  be  removed  with  warm  soap  and  water. 

To  the  mucous  membranes  belong  the  conjunctival  tunic  of  the  eye ; 
and  the  diseases  of  the  eye  generally  may  be  here  considered.  A 
scabby  itchiness  on  the  edge  of  the  eyelid  may  be  cured  by  a  diluted 
nitrated  ointment  of  mercuiy.  Warts  should  be  cut  oflf  with  the  scis- 
sors and  the  roots  touched  with  lunar  caustic.  Inflammation  of  the 
liaw  should  be  abated  by  the  employment  of  cooling  lotions,  but  that 
useful  defense  of  the  eye  should  never  if  possible  be  removed.  Com- 
mon ophthalmia  will  yield  as  readily  to  cooling  applications  as  inflam- 
mation of  the  same  organ  in  any  other  animal ;  but  there  is  another 
species  of  inflammation,  commencing  in  the  same  way  as  the  first, 
and  for  a  while  apparently  yielding  to  treatment,  but  which  changes 
from  eye  to  eye,  and  returns  again  and  again,  until  blindness  is  pro- 
duced in  one  or  both  organs  of  vision.  The  most  frequent  cause  is 
hereditary  predisposition.  The  reader  cannot  be  too  often  reminded 
that  the  qualities  of  the  sire,  good  or  bad,  descend,  and  scarcely  changed, 
to  his  offspring.  How  moon  blindness  was  first  produced  no  one  knows  ; 
but  its  continuance  in  our  stables  is  to  be  traced  to  this  cause  princi- 
pally, or  almost  alone ;  and  it  pursues  its  course  until  cataract  is  pro- 
duced for  which  there  is  no  remedy.  Gutta  serena  (palsy  of  the  optic 
nerve)  is  sometimes  observed,  and  many  have  been  deceived,  for  the  eye 
retains  its  perfect  transparency.  Here  also  medical  treatment  is  of  no 
avail. 

The  serous  membranes  are  of  great  importance.  The  brain  and  spinal 
marrow  with  the  origins  of  the  nerves  are  surrounded  by  them;  so  are 
the  heart,  the  lungs,  the  intestinal  canal,  and  the  organs  whose  office  it 
is  to  prepare  the  generative  fluid. 

Illflammution  of  the  Brain. — Mad-staggers  falls  under  this  division.  It 
is  inflammation  of  the  meninges  or  envelopes  of  the  brain,  produced  by 
over-exertion  or  by  any  of  the  causes  of  general  fever,  and  it  is  charac- 
terized by  the  wildest  delirium.  Nothing  but  the  most  profuse  blood- 
letting, active  purgation  and  blistering  the  head  will  afford  the  slightest 
hope  of  success.  Tetanus^  or  locked  jaw^  is  a  constant  spasm  of  all  the 
voluntary  muscles,  and  particularly  those  of  the  neck,  the  spine  and  the 
head,  arising  from  the  injury  of  some  nervous  fibril — that  injury  spread- 

38 


86  DOMESTIC   ANBIALS. 

ing  to  the  origin  of  the  nerve — the  brain  becoming  aftected,  and  uni- 
versal and  unbroken  spasmodic  action  being  the  result.  Bleeding, 
physicking,  blistering  the  course  of  the  spine,  and  the  administration 
of  opium  in  enormous  doses,  will  alone  give  any  chance  of  cure.  Epi- 
lepsy is  not  a  frequent  disease  in  the  horse,  but  it  seldom  admits  of 
cure.  It  is  also  very  apt  to  return  at  the  most  distant  and  uncertain  in- 
tervals. Palsy  is  the  suspension  of  nervous  power.  It  is  usually  confined 
to  the  hinder  limbs  and  sometimes  to  one  limb  only.  Bleeding,  physick- 
ing, antimonial  medicines,  and  blistering  of  the  spine  are  most  likely  to 
produce  a  cure;  but  they  too  often  utterly  fail  of  success.  Rabies^  or 
madness,  is  evidently  a  disease  of  the  nervous  system,  and  once  being 
developed,  is  altogether  without  remedy.  The  utter  destruction  of  the 
bitten  part  with  the  lunar  caustic  soon  after  the  infliction  of  the  wound, 
will,  however,  in  a  great  majority  of  cases,  prevent  that  development. 

Founder. — Founder,  when  acute,  requires  a  treatment  like  that  of  other 
inflammations,  with  such  differences  as  the  situation  of  the  disease  may 
suggest. 

131eeding  is  indispensable,  and  that  to  its  fullest  extent.  If  the  dis- 
ease is  confined  to  the  fore-feet,  four  quarts  of  blood  should  be  taken  as 
soon  as  possible  from  the  toe  of  each ;  care  being  taken  to  open  the 
artery  as  well  as  the  vein.  The  feet  may  likewise  be  put  into  warm 
water,  to  quicken  the  flow  of  the  blood,  and  increase  the  quantity  ab- 
stracted. Poultices  of  linseed  meal,  made  very  soft,  should  cover  the 
whole  of  the  foot  and  pastern,  and  be  frequently  renewed,  which  will 
promote  evapoi-ation  from  the  neighboring  parts,  and  possibly  through 
the  pores  of  the  hoof,  and  by  softening  and  rendering  supple  the  hoof, 
will  relieve  its  painful  pressure  on  the  swelled  and  tender  parts  beneath. 
More  fully  to  accomplish  this  last  purpose,  the  shoe  should  be  removed, 
the  sole  pared  as  thin  as  possible,  and  the  crust,  and  particularly  the 
quarters,  well  rasped.  All  this  must  be  done  gently,  and  with  a  great 
deal  of  patience,  for  the  poor  animal  can  scarcely  bear  his  feet  to  be 
meddled  with.  There  used  to  be  occasional  doubt  as  to  the  adminis- 
tration of  physic,  from  fear  of  metastasis  (shifting)  of  inflammation 
which  has  sometimes  occurred,  and  been  generally  fatal.  When,  how- 
ever, there  is  so  much  danger  of  losing  the  patient  from  the  original 
attack,  we  must  run  the  risk  of  the  other.  Sedative  and  cooling  medi- 
cines should  be  diligently  administered,  consisting  of  digitalis,  nitre,  and 
emetic  tartar. 

Chronic  Founder. — This  is  a  species  of  founder  insidious  in  its  attack, 
and  destructive  to  the  horse.  It  is  a  milder  form  of  the  preceding  dis- 
ease. There  is  lameness,  but  it  is  not  so  severe  as  in  the  former  case. 
The  horse  stands  as  usual.  The  crust  is  warm,  and  that  warmth  is  con- 
stant, but  it  is  not  often  probably  greater  than  in  a  state  of  health.  The 
surest  symptom  is  the  action  of  the  animal.  It  is  diametrically  opposite 
to  that  in  the  navicular  disease.  The  horse  throws  as  much  of  his 
weight  as  he  can  on  the  posterior  parts  of  his  feet. 

The  treatment  should  be  similar  to  that  recommended  for  the  acute 
disease — blood  letting,  poultices,  fomentations,  and  blisters,  and  the  last 
much  sooner  and  much  more  frequently  than  in  the  former  disease. 

Bog  and  UlooJ-Spavin. — x\ttached  to  the  extremities  of  most  of  the 


THE   nORSE.  87 

tendons,  and  between  the  tendons  and  other  parts,  are  little  bags  con- 
taining a  mucous  substance  to  enable  the  tendons  to  slide  over  each 
other  without  friction,  and  to  move  easily  on  the  neighboring  parts. 
From  violent  exercise  these  vessels  arc  liable  to  enlarge.  Windgalls  and 
thoronghpins  are  instances  of  this.  There  is  one  of  them  on  the  inside 
of  the  hock  at  its  bending.  This  sometimes  becomes  considerably  in- 
creased in  size,  and  the  enlargement  is  called  a  bog-spavin.  A  vein 
passes  over  the  bag,  which  is  pressed  between  the  enlargement  and  the 
skin,  and  the  passage  of  the  blood  through  it  is  impeded;  the  vein  is 
consequently  distended  by  the  accumulated  blood,  and  the  distension 
reaches  from  this  bag  as  low  down  as  the  next  valve.  This  is  called 
blood-spavin.  Blood-spavin,  then,  is  the  consequence  of  bog-spavin.  It 
very  rarely  occurs,  and  is,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  confounded  with 
bog-spavin. 

Blood-spavin  does  not  always  cause  lameness,  except  the  horse  is  very 
hard-worked  ;  but  this,  as  well  as  bog-spavin,  constitutes  unsoundness, 
and  materially  lessens  the  value  of  the  horse.  The  proper  treatment  is, 
to  endeavor  to  promote  the  absorption  of  the  contents  of  the  bag.  This 
may  be  attempted  by  pressure  long  applied.  A  bandage  may  be  con- 
trived to  take  in  the  whole  of  the  hock,  except  its  point;  and  a  com- 
press made  of  folded  linen  being  placed  on  the  bog-spavin,  may  confine 
the  principal  pressure  to  that  part.  It  is,  however,  very  difficult  to  adapt 
a  bandage  to  a  joint  which  admits  of  such  extensive  motion ;  therefore 
most  practitioners  apply  two  or  three  successive  blisters  over  the  en- 
largement, wlien  it  usually  disappears.  Unfortunately,  however,  it  re- 
turns if  any  extraordinary  exertion  is  required  from  the  horse. 

Strangles-* — This  is  a  disease  principally  incident  to  young  horses — 
usually  appearing  between  the  fourth  and  fifth  year,  and  oftener  in  the 
spring  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  year.  It  is  preceded  by  cough, 
and  can  at  first  scarcely  be  distinguished  from  common  cough,  except 
that  there  is  more  discharge  from  the  nostril,  of  a  yellowish  color, 
mixed  with  pus,  and  generally  without  smell.  There  is  likewise  a  con- 
siderable discharge  of  ropy  fluid  from  the  mouth,  and  greater  swelling 
than  usual  under  the  throat.  This  swelling  increases  with  uncertain 
rapidity,  accompanied  by  some  fever  and  disinclination  to  eat,  partly 
arising  from  the  fever,  but  more  from  the  pain  which  the  animal  feels 
in  the  act  of  mastication.  There  is  considerable  thirst,  but  after  a 
gulp  or  two  the  horse  ceases  to  drink,  yet  is  evidently  desirous  of  con- 
tinuing his  draught.  In  the  attempt  to  swallow,  and  sometimes  when 
not  drinking,  a  convulsive  cough  comes  on,  which  almost  threatens  to 
suffocate  the  animal — and  thence,  probably  the  name  of  the  disease. 

The  tumor  is  under  the  jaw,  and  about  the  center  of  the  channel.  It 
soon  fills  the  whole  of  the  space,  and  is  evidently  one  uniform  body, 
and  may  thus  be  distinguished  from  glanders,  or  the  enlarged  glands  of 
catarrh.  In  a  few  days  it  becomes  more  prominent  and  soft,  and  evi- 
dently contains  a  fluid.  This  rapidly  increases  ;  the  tumor  bursts,  and  a 
great  quantity  of  pus  is  discharged.  As  soon  as  the  tumor  has  broken 
the  cough  subsides,  and  the  hoi'se  speedily  mends,  although  some  degree 

*  Usually  termed  ^^ Horse  disiemper^^  in,  the  United  States. 


88  DOMESTIC   ANIMAXS. 

of  weakness  may  hang  about  him  for  a  considerable  time.  Few  horses, 
possibly  none,  escape  its  attack ;  bat  the  disease  having  passed  over,  the 
animal  is  free  from  it  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  Catarrh  may  pre- 
cede, or  may  predispose  to,  the  attack,  and,  undoubtedly,  the  state  of 
the  atmosphere  has  much  to  do  w^ith  it,  for  both  its  prevalence  and  its 
severity  are  connected  with  certain  seasons  of  the  year  and  changes  of 
the  weather.  There  is  no  preventive  for  the  disease,  nor  is  there  any 
thing  contagious  about  it.  Many  strange  stories  are  told  with  regard 
to  tiiis;  but  the  explanation  of  the  matter  is,  that  when  several  horses 
in  the  same  form,  or  in  the  same  neighborhood,  have  had  strangles  at 
the  same  time,  they  have  been  exposed  to  the  same  powerful  but  un- 
known exciting  cause. 

As  soon  as  the  tumor  under  the  jaw  is  decidedly  apparent,  the  part 
sliould  be  actively  blistered.  From  the  thickness  of  skin,  poultices, 
fomentations,  etc.,  are  of  little  avail.  The  blister  will  also  abate  the 
internal  inflammation  and  soreness  of  the  throat,  and  thus  lessen  the 
cough  and  wheezing. 

As  soon  as  the  swelling  is  soft  on  its  summit,  and  evidently  contains 
matter,  it  should  be  freely  and  deeply  lanced.  It  is  a  bad,  although 
frequent  practice,  to  suffer  the  tumor  to  burst  naturally,  for  a  ragged 
ulcer  is  formed,  very  slow  to  heal  and  difficult  of  treatment.  If  the 
incision  is  deep  and  large  enough,  no  second  collection  of  matter  will 
be  formed  :  and  that  which  is  already  there  may  be  allowed  to  run  out 
slowly,  all  pressure  with  the  fingers  being  avoided.  The  part  should 
be  kept  clean,  and  a  little  friar's  balsam  injected  daily  into  the  wound. 

The  remainder  of  the  treatment  will  depend  on  the  symptoms.  If 
there  is  much  fever,  and  evident  affection  of  the  chest,  and  which 
should  carefully  be  distinguished  from  the  oppression  and  choking 
occasioned  by  the  pressure  of  the  tumor,  it  will  be  proper  to  bleed.  In 
the  majority  of  cases,  however,  bleeding  will  not  only  be  unnecessary, 
but  injurious.  It  will  delay  the  suppuration  of  the  tumor,  and  increase 
the  subsequent  debility.  A  few  cooling  medicines,  as  nitre,  emetic 
tartar,  and  perhaps  digitalis,  may  be  given,  as  the  case  requires.  The 
appetite,  or  rather  the  abihty  to  eat,  will  return  with  the  opening  of  the 
abscess.  Bran-mashes,  or  fresh-cut  grass  or  tares,  should  be  liberally 
supplied,  which  will  not  only  afford  sufficient  nourishment  to  recruit 
the  strength  of  the  animal,  but  keep  the  bowels  gent.y  open.  If  the 
weakness  is  not  great,  no  further  medicine  will  be  wanted,  except  a  dose 
of  mild  physic  in  order  to  prevent  the  swellings  or  eruptions  which 
sometimes  succeed  to  strangles.  In  cases  of  debility,  a  small  quantity  of 
tonic  medicine,  as  chamomile,  gentian,  or  ginger,  may  be  administered. 

Poll-Evil. — From  the  horse  rubbing  and  sometimes  striking  his  poll 
against  the  lower  end  of  the  manger,  or  hanging  back  in  the  stall  and 
bruising  the  part  with  the  halter — or  from  the  frequent  and  painful 
stretching  of  the  ligaments  and  muscles  by  unnecessaiT  tight  reining, 
and,  occasionally,  from  a  vio'ent  blow  on  the  poll,  inflammation  ensues, 
ani]  a  swelling  appears,  hot,  tender,  and  painful.  It  used  to  be  a  disease 
of  frequent  occurrence,  but  it  is  now,  fi'om  better  treatment  of  the  ani- 
mal, of  comparatively  rare  occurrence. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  ligament  of  the  neck  passes  over  the  atlas, 


TirE  HORSE.  89 

or  first  bone,  "svithont  being  attached  to  it,  and  the  seat  of  inflammation 
is  between  the  ligament  and  the  bone  beneath  ;  and  being  thus  deeply- 
situated,  it  is  serious  in  its  nature  and  difficult  of  treatment. 

The  first  thing  to  be  attempted  is  to  abate  the  inflammation  by  bleed- 
ing, physic,  and  the  application  of  cold  lotions  to  the  part.  In  a  very 
early  period  of  the  case  a  blister  might  have  considerable  eflfect.  Strong 
purgatives  should  also  be  employed.  By  these  means  the  tumor  will 
sometimes  be  dispersed.  This  system,  however,  must  not  be  porsiied 
too  far.  If  the  swelling  increases,  and  the  heat  and  tenderness  likewise 
increase,  matter  will  form  in  the  tumor;  and  then  our  object  should  be 
to  hasten  its  formation  by  warm  fomentations,  poultices,  or  vStimulating 
embrocations.  As  soon  as  the  matter  is  formed,  which  may  be  known 
by  the  softness  of  the  tumor,  and  before  it  has  time  to  spread  around 
and  eat  into  the  neighboring  parts,  it  should  be  evacuated.  Now  comes 
the  whole  art  of  treating  poll-evil ;  the  opening  into  the  tumor  must  he 
so  contrived  that  all  the  matter  shall  run  out^  and  continue  afterward  to 
run  out  as  quickly  as  it  is  formed,  and  not  collect  at  the  bottom  of  the 
ulcer,  irritating  and  corroding  it.  This  can  be  effected  by  a  sett)n  alone. 
The  needle  should  enter  at  the  top  of  the  tumor,  penetrate  through  its 
bottom,  and  be  brought  out  at  the  side  of  the  neck,  a  little  below  the 
abscess.  Without  any  thing  more  than  this,  except  frequent  fomenta- 
tion with  warm  water,  in  order  to  keep  the  part  clean,  and  to  obviate  in- 
flammation, poll-evil  in  its  early  stage  will  frequently  be  cured. 

If  the  ulcer  has  deepened  and  spread,  and  threatens  to  eat  into  the 
ligaments  of  the  joints  of  the  neck,  it  may  be  necessary  to  stimulate  its 
surface,  and  perhaps  painfully  so,  in  order  to  bring  it  to  a  healthy  state, 
and  dispose  it  to  fill  up.  In  extreme  cases,  some  highly  stimulating  ap- 
plication may  be  employed.  All  measures,  however,  will  be  ineffectual 
unless  the  pus  or  matter  is,  by  the  use  of  setons,  perfectly  evacuated. 
The  application  of  these  setons  will  require  the  skill  and  anatomical 
knowledge  of  the  veterinary  surgeon.  In  desperate  cases,  the  wound 
cannot  be  fairly  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  caustic  without  the  divi- 
sion of  the  ligament  of  the  neck.  This  may  be  effected  with  perfect 
safety ;  for,  although  the  ligament  is  carried  on  to  the  occipital  bone, 
and  some  strength  is  gained  by  this  prolongation  of  it,  the  main  stress 
is  on  the  second  bone ;  and  the  head  will  continue  to  be  supported. 
'J  he  divided  ligament,  also,  will  soon  unite  again,  and  its  former  useful- 
ness w^ill  be  restored  when  the  w^ound  is  healed.* 

*  All  cooling  applications  to  the  poll-evil  are  useless,  for  when  once  the  swelling 
w^hich  constitutes  the  disease  has  appeared,  we  have  never  known  it  dispersed,  but 
sooner  or  later  it  suppurates.  It  often  takes  many  months  before  the  matter  reaches 
the  surface ;  but  the  more  complete  the  suppuration  is,  tlie  easier  it  is  to  efi'ect  a 
cure.  The  injury,  which  generally  arises  from  striking  the  poll  against  a  low  door- 
way, is  deep-seated,  and  the  surface  of  the  bone  is  often  diseased  from  tlie  begin- 
ning. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  the  poll-evil  is  very  difficult  to  cnre,  a  difficulty  arising 
not  from  the  character  of  the  injury,  but  rather  from  its  situation,  and  the  nature  of 
the  surrounding  parts.  When  matter  forms  in  any  situation,  it  has  a  tendency  to 
pass  downward,  and  to  seek  an  exit  where  tlie  least  obstacles  are  offered  to  its 
passage.  It  consequently  forms  passages  or  sinuses  (pipes)  amongst  the  muscles, 
and  when  these  are  filled  the  matter  points  to  the  surface.     This  tendency  con- 


90 


DOMESTIC   AliTMAT.S. 


a  and  &,  the  eggs  of  the  gad-fly  adhering  to  the  hair  of  the  horse ;  c,  the  appearance  of  the 
bots  on  the  stomach,  firmly  adhering  by  their  hooked  mouths.  The  marks  or  depressions  are 
seen  which  are  left  on  the  coat  of  the  stomach  when  the  bots  are  detached  from  their  hold;  d. 
the  hot  detached;  e,  the  female  of  the  gad-fly  of  the  horse,  prepared  to  deposit  her  eggs;^ 
the  gad-fly  by  which  the  red  bots  are  produced ;  g,  the  smaller,  or  red  bot. 

Bots, — In  the  spring  and  early  part  of  the  summer,  horses  are  much 
troubled  by  a  grub  or  caterpillar,  which  crawls  out  of  the  anus,  fastens 
itself  under  the  tail,  and  seems  to  cause  a  great  deal  of  itching  or  un- 
easiness. Grooms  are  sometimes  alarmed  at  the  appearance  of  these 
insects.  Their  history  is  curious,  and  will  dispel  every  fear  with  regard 
to  them.  We  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Bracy  Clark  for  almost  all  we  know 
of  the  bot. 

A  species  of  gad-fly,  e,  the  cetrus  equi,  is  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
summer  exceedingly  busy  about  the  horse.  It  is  observed  to  be  dart- 
ing with  great  rapidity  toward  the  knees  and  sides  of  the  animal.  The 
females  are  depositing  their  eggs  on  the  hair,  and  which  adhere  to  it  by 
means  of  a  glutinous  fluid  with  which  they  are  surrounded  (a  and  6). 
In  a  few  days  the  eggs  are  ready  to  be  hatched,  and  the  sh'ghtest  appli- 
cation of  warmth  and  moisture  will  liberate  the  little  animals  which 
they  contain.     The  horse  in  licking  himself  touches  the  egg ;  it  bursts. 


tinues  after  an  external  opening  is  made,  and  deep  sinuses  are  formed  in  various 
directions,  rendering  it  almost  impossible  to  get  a  depending  opening. 

The  abscess  should  not  be  opened  till  the  matter  is  thoroughly  formed,  and  then 
a  depending  opening  should  be  made,  through  which  a  seton  may  be  passed.  The 
great  error  frequently  made  in  the  treatment  of  poll-evil  is,  that  tliese  openings  are 
not  made  half  large  enougli.  so  that  much  of  tlie  pus  flows  in  another  direction,  and 
there  forms  sinuses.  Now,  the  chief  art  in  the  treatment  of  this  disease  is  to  use 
the  bistoury  freely,  to  lay  all  the  siimses  open  as  much  as  possible,  and  to  throw 
them  together;  then  to  make  the  lower  opening  extremely  large,  and  as  low  down 
as  possible — large  enough,  indeed,  for  two  fingers  to  be  inserted.  If  the  bone  is 
injured,  it  will  be  necessary  to  apply  some  caustic  application,  in  order  to  cause  a 
healthy  slough.  Pressure  is  found  very  useful  in  keeping  tlie  sides  of  the  wound 
together,  and  preserving  the  formation  of  sinuses.  "With  this  view,  it  has  been  re- 
commended to  ajjply  a  tight  compress,  by  means  of  bandages,  round  the  part,  but 
it  is  extremely  inconveniejit  to  aj)ply  them,  in  consequence  of  the  windpipe  inter- 
fering.— Spooner. 


THE    HOKSE.  91 

and  a  small  worm  escapes,  which  adheres  to  the  tongue,  and  is  con- 
veyed with  the  food  into  the  stomach.  There  it  clings  to  the  cuticular 
portion  of  the  stomach,  c,  by  means  of  a  hook  on  either  side  of  its 
mouth  ;  and  its  hold  is  so  firm  and  so  obstinate,  that  it  must  be  broken 
before  it  can  be  detached.  It  remains  there  feeding  on  the  mucus  of 
the  stomach  daring  the  whole  of  the  winter,  and  until  the  end  of  the 
ensuing  spring;  when,  having  attained  a  considerable  size,  c?,  and  being 
destined  to  undergo  a  certain  transformation,  it  disengages  itself  from 
the  cuticular  coat,  is  carried  into  the  villous  portion  of  the  stomach 
with  the  food,  passes  out  of  it  with  the  chyme,  and  is  evacuated  with 
the  dung. 

The  larva,  or  maggot,  seeks  shelter  in  the  ground,  and  buries  itself 
there  ;  it  contracts  in  size,  and  becomes  then  a  chrysalis,  or  grub,  in 
which  state  it  lies  inactive  for  a  few  weeks,  and  then,  bursting  from 
its  confinement,  assumes  the  form  of  a  fly.  The  female,  becoming 
impregnated,  quickly  deposits  her  eggs  on  those  parts  of  the  horse 
which  he  is  most  accustomed  to  lick,  and  thus  the  species  is  perpetu- 
ated. 

There  are  several  plain  conclusions  to  be  drawn  from  this  history. 
The  bots  cannot,  while  they  inhabit  the  stomach  of  the  horse,  give  the 
animal  any  pain,  for  they  have  fastened  on  the  cuticular  and  insensible 
coat.  They  cannot  be  injurious  to  the  horse,  for  he  enjoys  the  most 
perfect  health  when  the  cuticular  part  of  his  stomach  is  filled  with 
them,  and  their  presence  is  not  even  suspected  until  they  appear  at  the 
anus.  They  cannot  be  removed  by  medicine,  because  they  are  not  in 
that  part  of  the  stomach  to  which  medicine  is  usually  conveyed  ;  and 
if  they  were,  their  mouths  are  too  deeply  buried  in  the  mucus  for  any 
medicine,  that  can  be  safely  administered,  to  affect  them  ;  and,  last  of 
all,  in  due  course  of  time  they  detach  themselves,  and  come  away. 
Therefore  the  wise  man  will  leave  them  to  themselves,  or  content  him- 
self with  picking  them  off  when  they  collect  under  the  tail  and  annoy 
the  animal. 

The  smaller  bot,/and  r/,  is  not  so  frequently  found. 

Wind-Galls. — In  the  neighborhood  of  the  fetlock  there  are  occasion- 
ally found  considerable  enlargements,  oftener  on  the  hind  leg  than  the 
fore  one,  which  are  denominated  wind-galls.  Between  the  tendons  and 
other  parts,  and  wherever  the  tendons  are  exposed  to  pressure  or  friction, 
and  particularly  about  their  extremities,  little  bags  or  sacs  are  placed, 
containing,  and  suffering  to  ooze  slowl}^  from  them,  a  mucous  fluid  to 
lubricate  (make  slippery)  the  parts.  From  undue  pressure,  and  that 
most  frequently  caused  by  violent  action  and  straining  of  the  tendons, 
or  often  from  some  predisposition  about  the  horse,  these  little  sacs  are 
injured.  They  take  on  inflammation  and  sometimes  become  large  and 
hardened.  There  are  few  horses  perfectly  free  from  them.  When  they 
first  appear,  and  until  the  inflammation  subsides,  they  may  be  accompa- 
nied by  some  degree  of  lameness;  but  otherwise,  except  when  they  at- 
tain a  great  size,  they  do  not  interfere  with  the  action  of  the  animal,  or 
cause  any  considerable  unsoundness.  The  farriers  used  to  suppose  that 
they  contained  wind — hence  their  name,  wind-galls ;  and  hence  the 
practice  of  opening  them,  by  which  dreadful  inflammation  was  often 


92  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

produced,  and  many  a  valuable  horse  destroyed.     It  is  not  uncommon 
for  wind-galls  entirely  to  disappear  in  aged  horses. 

A  sligiit  wind-gali  will  scarcely  be  subjected  to  treatment;  but  if 
these  tumors  are  numerous  and  large,  and  seem  to  impede  the  motion 
of  the  limb,  they  may  be  attacked  first  by  bandage.  The  rollers  should 
be  of  flannel,  and  soft  pads  should  be  placed  on  each  of  the  enlarge- 
ments, and  bound  down  tightly  upon  them.  The  bandage  should  also 
be  wetted  with  the  lotion  recommended  for  sprain  of  the  back  sinews. 
The  wind-gall  will  often  diminish  or  disappear  by  this  treatment,  but 
will  too  frequently  return  when  the  horse  is  again  hardly  worked.  A 
blister  is  a  more  eff"ectual  but  too  often  temporary  remedy.  "Wind-galls 
will  return  with  the  renewal  of  work.  Firing  is  still  more  certain,  if  the 
tumors  are  sufficiently  large  and  annoying  to  justify  our  having  recourse 
to  measures  so  severe ;  for  it  will  not  only  effect  the  immediate  absorp- 
tion of  the  fluid  and  the  redaction  of  the  swelling,  but  by  contracting 
the  skin  will  act  as  a  permanent  bandage,  and  therefore  prevent  the  re- 
appearance of  the  tumor.  The  iodine  and  mercurial  ointments  have 
occasionally  been  used  with  advantage  in  the  proportion  of  three  parts 
of  the  former  to  two  of  the  latter. 


The  following  formulae  may  be  said  to  contain  most  of  the  remedies 
necessary  for  the  use  of  the  amateur;  when  disease  prevails,  the  safest 
plan  is  to  call  in  the  assistance  of  a  veterinary  practitioner. 

When  calomel  or  emetic  tartar  is  given  for  the  expulsion  of  worms,  it 
should  be  mixed  in  a  small  portion  of  bran  mash,  after  fasting  the  animal 
five  or  six  hours  ;  two  doses  given  at  similar  intervals  will  be  most  effective. 
They  must  be  worked  off  with  linseed  oil  or  aloes,  after  an  equivalent 
lapse  of  time;  and  as  alkalies  neutralize  the  effects  of  either  of  those 
medicines,  soap  must  be  excluded  if  the  form  of  ball  is  preferred. 

As  an  external  stimulating  application  for  the  throat  in  cases  of  in- 
flammation arising  from  cold  or  other  causes,  common  mustard,  mixed 
with  water  as  for  the  table  is  an  excellent  remedy,  and  is  equal  if  not 
superior  to  any  of  the  more  complicated  nostrums. 

When  cooling  remedies  are  required  to  the  legs,  cold  water  is  the 
beet.  The  introduction  of  nitre  and  sal-amtnoniac  will  increase  the 
evaporation ;  but  great  care  is  requisite  to  renew  such  medicated  lotions 
very  frequently ;  because  when  the  refrigerating  process  is  over,  they 
become  stimulants;  thus  on  ordinary  occasions  cold  water  constantly 
applied  with  very  loose  linen  bandages  is  to  be  preferred. 

TABLE  SHOWING  THE  PROrORTIONS  OF  MEDICINES  TO  BE   GiyEN  TO  HORSES 
AT  VARIOUS  AGES. 

Calomel  or  Tartarizcd 

Antimony.  Linseed  Oil,  Aloes. 

Grains.                    Oimces.  Drachms. 

To  foals 10  4  to    6  ^  to    ^ 

Yearlings 15  to  20  6         8  1         IV 

Two  years  old 20       25  8       12  2         2^ 

Three  years  old 25       30  12       15  2^       3^ 

Four  years  old  and  upward  30       60  1         2  pts,  4         6 


THE   HORSE. 


93 


Common  Aloctic  Purgative. — Aloes  finely  powdered,  four  drachms ;  hard 
soap  and  ginger,  each  two  drachms.  Mix  and  form  a  ball,  varying  the 
proportions  according  to  the  age  and  constitution  of  the  horse. 

Aloctic  Purgative  without  Sonp. — Aloes  broken  in  pieces,  four  drachms; 
olive  oil  or  lard,  one  drachm;  ginger  in  powder,  two  drachms;  treacle, 
one  and  a  half  drachms.  The  aloes  and  oil,  or  lard,  must  be  melted  in  a 
jar  placed  in  a  saucepan  over  the  fire,  and  wdien  melted,  the  ginger  and 
treacle  are  added.  The  aloes  must  not  be  boiled  longer  than  to  effect 
their  solution. 

Aloetic  Alteratives. — iVloes  in  fine  powders,  two  drachms;  nitre,  two 
drachms;  soap,  two  drachms.  Mix  and  form  one  ball.  To  be  given 
daily  till  a  slight  action  of  the  bowels  is  produced. 

AulilUOnial  Alterative. — Sulphur  and  sulphuret  of  antimony,  each  two 
to  three  drachms.  Treacle  to  form  a  ball.  One  of  which  may  be  given 
four,  five,  or  six  days  in  succession. 

The  preparation  necessary  before  giving  aloetic  purges  should  be 
very  scrupulously  attended  to.  Bran  mashes  must  be  liberally  substi- 
tuted for  hay  during  the  twenty-four  hours  previous  to  giving  the  ball; 
and  the  horse  requires  to  be  walked  out  during  its  operation. 

MEDICINES    FOR    THE    HORSE THEIR    ACTION    AND    DOSES. 


Muriatic  acid, 

Nitric  acid, 

Sulphuric  acid, 

Gentian, 

Peruvian  bark. 

Sulphate  of  iron, 

Myrrli, 

Sulphate  of  zinc. 

Oxide  of  zinc, 

Strychnine, 

Iodi<'  T  of  iron, 

Alum, 

Nut-fralls, 

Sugar  of  lead, 

Iodine, 

Corrosive  sublimate, 

Hydriodate  of  potash, 

Caloniei, 

Epsom  salts, 

GlaubiT  salts, 

Aloes, 

Calomcd, 

Croton  oil, 

Nitrate  of  potash, 

Carbonate  of  potash, 

Tincture  digitalis. 

Tincture  colchicum, 

Cream  of  tartar, 

Sjii'its  of  nitre, 

liesin, 

Spirits  of  turpentine. 

Emetic  tartar, 

Opium, 

Laudanum, 

]'2\tract  hyoscyamus, 

(.faraway  seecLs, 

S  dphur, 

Camphor, 

Tine,  veratrum  viride, 

Belladonna, 

ITsed  externallj%  muriatic  acid, 
Iodine  is  alterative ;  and  sugar  of 


Tonic, 

Tonic, 

Tonic, 

Tonic, 

Tonic, 

Tonic, 

Tonic, 

Tonic  astringent. 

Tonic, 

Tonic  for  nerves. 

Alterative  and  tonic,  • 

Astringent, 

Astringent, 

Astringent, 

Alterative, 

Alterative, 

Alterative, 

Alterative, 

Purgative, 

Purgative, 

Purgative, 

Purgative, 

Purgative, 

Diuretic, 

Diuretic  and  sedative, 

Diuretic  and  narcotic. 

Diuretic  and  laxative, 

Diuretic, 

Diui-etic, 

Diuretic, 

Diuretic, 

Nauseant  and  diaphoretic. 

Narcotic, 

Narcotic, 

Narcotic, 

Carminaitive, 

Laxative  and  alterative. 

Narcotic, 

Sedative, 

Sedative  and  narcotic, 


1  to  2  drachms 
1  to  '2  drachms. 

1  to  2  drachms. 

2  to  4  drachms. 
2  to  4  drachms. 
2  to  4  drachms. 
2  to  4  drachms. 
1  to  2  drachms, 
1  to  2  drachms. 

1  to  3  grains. 

5  to  1  drachm. 

2  to  4  drachms. 
2  to  4  draclims. 
i  to  1  drachm. 
5  to  iO  grains. 
4  to  6  grains. 

i  drachm. 
U>  to  2U  grains. 
i  lb.  to  1  lb. 
i  lb,  to  1  lb. 
J  to  2  drachms, 
i  to  2  drachms. 
20  to  30  drops. 
2  to  4  drachms. 
2  to  4  drachms. 
1  to  2  drachms. 
1  to  2  drachms. 
1  to  2  ounces. 
1  to  2  ounces 
y  to  1  ounce. 
i  to  1  ounce. 
i  to  1  drachm, 
1  to  2  drachms. 
i  to  2  ounces. 
1  to  2  drachms. 
^  to  1  ounce, 
i  to  2  ounces. 
]  to  2  drachms. 
20  to  30  drops 
1  to  2  drachms. 


nitrjc  acid   sulphuric  acid,  and  corrosive  sublimate  are  caustic, 
lead  is  sedative 


CATTLE: 

THE  DAIRY  AND  FAT-PRODUCING  BREEDS, 


AND 


THEIE  MA:N^AGEMENT 


IN 


HEALTH   AND    DISEASE. 


CATTLE.  97 


CATTLiE  : 

TIIEIE  BEEEDS,  MAl^AGEMEKT,  ETC. 

CATTLE,  THEIR  VALUE.— There  is  not  a  race  of  animals  to  which  the 
community  is  on  the  whole  more  indebted,  than  to  cattle.  They  not  only 
cultivate  the  land,  but  afford  food  of  various  kinds,  in  different  circum- 
stances of  their  existence ;  and  also,  at  death,  supply  very  important 
articles  of  clothing  and  utility,  and  are  amongst  those  animals  to  which 
we  owe  by  far  the  most  of  the  comforts  and  conveniences  of  life.  Not 
to  mention  the  use  of  cattle  in  many  districts  of  country  for  the  pur- 
poses of  labor ;  they  suj)ply,  during  life,  those  most  important  of  ne- 
cessaries, milk  and  cream  ;  they  afford  the  luxuries  of  cheese  and  of 
butter;  and  at  their  death  they  are  the  sources  of  supply  of  the  food 
which  has  become  associated  with  national  peculiarities  even,  and  which 
is  one  of  the  most  nutritious  of  the  necessaries  of  life.  Nor  in  death 
does  their  utility  cease.  Their  hide  provides  the  protection  to  our  feet 
and  the  trappings  to  our  horses— their  horns,  combs  and  ornaments — • 
their  hoofs  even,  and  their  waste,  supply  glue  and  gelatine;  while  their 
bones  afford  the  handles  for  our  knives  and  many  useful  articles  in 
manufactures;  and  the  refuse  again,  of  these,  returns  to  our  soils  as  a 
most  valuable  manure. 

THE  DAIRY  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE.— The  great  object  for  which  cattle  are 
kept  by  the  farmer  is  either  to  grow  beef  for  the  market,  or  to  produce 
milk,  which  shall  be  converted  into  butter  or  cheese,  or  sold  as  milk,  to 
supply  the  great  towns.  Hence  the  former  selects  the  fat-producing, 
and  the  latter  the  milk-producing  class  of  animals.  Nature,  as  a  gen- 
eral thing,  has  provided  that  different  races  of  animals,  and  different 
individuals  of  these  races,  are,  more  than  others,  adapted  to  the  secre- 
tion of  one  or  the  other  of  these  necessary  products.  The  objects  of 
the  two  secretions  are  essentially  different,  and  the  tendencies  and 
qualities  necessary  for  both  are  never  active  in  the  same  animal  at  the 
same  time.  For  while  the  former  is  a  reservoir  of  the  carbonaceous 
matter  of  the  food,  laid  by  for  subsequent  use  in  the  respiratory  system, 
the  latter  is  the  secretion  of  a  substance  necessary  to  support  the  young 
progeny  until  it  is  able  to  sustain  itself,  and  to  procure  from  the  green 
pastures  the  food  there  provided  for  it.  Hence,  to  produce  milk  is, 
more  or  less,  the  natural  quality  of  all  kinds  and  races  of  cattle  ;  but 
some  will  produce  large  quantities,  but  thin  and  poor  in  quality ;  some 
smaller  quantities,  and  rich  in  oily  matter,  while  others  will  afford  a 
small  quantity,  but  abundant  in  solid  matter ;  and  the  first  class  would 
be  selected  by  the  milk-man  near  the  populous  city,  the  second  by  the 
dairy-man  whose  product  was  intended  to  be  butter,  and  the  third  by 
the  maker  of  cheese.  There  are  some  tribes  of  cattle  that  are  both 
good  fatteners  and  good  milkers,  but  never  at  the  same  time. 

The  milk-producing  breeds  are  more  widely  diffused  than  any  other, 
because  they  are  capable  of  being  kept  to  advantage  on  qualities  of 
5 


98 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


herbage  which  are  inadequate  profitably  to  sustain  the  fat-secreting 
breeds.  Grass-land  on  the  clay  soils  on  the  sides  of  the  uplands,  and 
even  on  the  poorer  sands,  is  quite  adequate  to  supply  the  means  of 
making  butter  or  cheese;  but  it  will  very  ill  repay  the  person  who  at- 
tempts to  feed  cattle  on  herbage  so  inferior;  while  the  rich  alluvial 
feeding  pastures  which  generally  skirt  the  rivers,  are  far  more  profitably 
employed  in  raising  summer  beef  than  in  the  production  of  milk,  of 
cheese,  or  of  butter.  Some  races  of  long-horns,  of  short-horns,  or  of 
middle  horns,  or  even  of  polled  animals,  are  to  be  placed  amongst  the 
one  class  we  have  alluded  to,  and  some  amongst  the  other,  and  we  pre- 
fer arranging  the  breeds  most  celebrated  for  the  quantity  or  quality  of 
tl>eir  milk  under  the  first  head,  and  reserve  the  second  to  the  races  with 
special  aptitude  for  fattening. 

The  question  arises  very  naturally  how  far  it  is  possible,  by  external 
conformations  of  the  individual  animal,  to  detect  its  capabilities  for  the 
secretion  of  milk.  There  are  instances  in  every  breed  where  it  is  evi- 
dent nature  has  been  more  bountiful,  or  more  nigo-ardly,  in  bestowing 
the  qualities  calculated  to  produce  the  secretion  for  which  the  race  may 
be  celebrated  ;  and  there  are,  doubtless,  marks,  well  known  to  the  dairy- 
man, Avhich  seldom  fail  to  indicate  the  power  of  the  animal  in  the  range 
of  qualities  peculiar  to  his  race.  On  the  continent  of  Europe  this  has 
been  professed  to  be  carried  to  a  very  minute  extent.  Francois  Guenon, 
a  Frenchman,  professed  to  have  found,  by  close  observation,  a  mode  of 
deciding  authoritatively,  not  only  the  quantity  and  quality  of  milk 
which  would  be  given  by  any  particular  cow,  but  also  the  period  for 
which  she  would  retain  her  milk  after  calving,  and  tliis  he  proposed 
to  do  by  external  appearances  alone,  and  these  of  a  somewhat  arbitrary 
kind. 

It  is  not  within  the  compass  of  this  work  to 
uive  any  thing  like  a  description  of  the  mode 
lie  adopted,  now  made  public,*  but  the  foun- 
dation of  it  is,  his  classification  of  all  kinds  of 
cnttle  into  eight  classes,  or  families;  each  fam- 
ily is  divided  into  three  sections,  according  to 
size  only,  and  each  section  is  again  subdivided 
into  eight  orders. 

The  distinguishing  marks  by  which  he  di- 
vides these  are:   1.  The  Gravure,  commencing 
at  the  udder,  and  extending  to   the  bearing; 
cLAesi.FLANDRiNEsoFGUENON's^.    Thc  Epis,  a  soft  brush  of  hair  upon  the 
bvsTF.M  animal ;  and   3,  Contrepoil,  or    hair   growing 

the  contrary  way.  The  peculiarities  of  these  marks  constitute  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  families  and  orders.  Thus,  if  the  gravure  be  large, 
the  reservoir  of  milk  will  be  large,  and  the  product  abundant;  if  it  be 
formed  of  fine  hair,  if  the  skin  be  yellowish,  and  if  a  kind  of  bran  powder 
which  comes  off  the  skin  be  of  that  color,  they  are  all  signs  of  a  good 


*  Tliis  work,  with  the  original  figures  and  a  full  elucidation  of  the  system,  can  be 
procured  of  C.  M.  Saxton,  25  Park  Row,  New  York.  It  is  an  ingenious  and  plausi- 
ble system,  and  well  worthy  the  attention  of  dairymen. — Ed. 


CATTLE.  99 

milker.  The  rationale  of  this  is,  that  this  gravnre  is  but  a  continuation 
of,  and  corresponds  with  the  lactiferous  vessels  under  the  belly  of  the 
animal.  These  "  epis,"  he  states,  correspond  with  the  reservoir  of  milk, 
and  are  tufts  of  hair  ixrowino;  the  Avrono;  way  on  the  rio-ht  or  left  of  the 
bearing.  The  largest  epis  indicates  the  most  rapid  loss  of  milk.  The 
contrepoil,  or  hair  growing  the  wrong  way  on  the  gravure  amidst  that 
which  grows  upward,  shows  a  default  in  the  production  of  milk,  even 
if  the  gravure  be  large.  We  give  afac-simile  of  his  class  1.  Flandrines 
So  far  IS  a  very  general  description  of  a  system  which  he  invests  with 
minutiae  of  no  ordinary  kind,  and  it  is  so  precise  and  prolix  that  it  re- 
quires a  series  of  some  score  of  plates  to  show  the  variations  of  family^ 
class,  and  order. 

Without  definitively  pronouncing  that  there  is  no  merit  in  his  obser- 
vations, it  seems  perfectly  clear  that  many  of  his  indications  are  of  a 
character  generally  indicative  of  quality,  but  are  pushed  far  beyond 
their  legitimate  objects;  for  while  a  wide  capacity  of  upper  udder — a 
fine  hair — a  yellow  scurf,  are  somewhat  too  indefinite  to  classify  very 
precisely,  they  are  just  the  points  which  may  indicate  the  fineness  of 
quality,  and  a  large  lactiferous  capacity  which  may  add  to  the  physio- 
logical signs  by  which  a  milking-cow  is  judged  by  the  practical  grazier. 

Beauty  of  form  is  about  the  last  qualification  in  a  good  dairy  cow.  Sym-t 
metry  to  a  breeder  is  no  criterion  of  milking  qualities.  The  parallelo- 
gram is  the  beau  ideal  of  a  fattened  ox  in  section,  and  a  cylinder  is  that 
of  his  superficies — thus  exhibiting  an  essence  of  roundness,  whereas  the 
very  converse  is  the  perfection  of  a  milker,  i.e.  "flatness."  The  follow- 
inof  are  the  best-settled  marks  or  characteristics  of  a  milkinof  cow.  Head 
small  and  fine,  eye  bright  and  lull,  but  with  a  quiet  and  placid  expres- 
sion, neck  thin  and  deep,  which  gives  it  an  appearance  of  hollowness ; 
shoulder  and  breast  narrow,  but  projecting;  ribs  flat;  rumps  broad,  and 
tapering  down  to  the  knee-joint,  owing  to  the  thighs  being  thin  ;  tail 
small;  udder  large  and  round,  with  teats  well  formed,  tapering  to  the 
end,  and  at  a  moderate  distance  from  each  other;  thin  in  its  skin,  and 
with  plenty  of  skin  above;  its  fore-teats  round  and  full,  and  with  a 
large  subcutaneous  or  milk  vein. 

The  Ayrshire  Cow. — In  Ayrshire  and  the  adjacent  portion  of  the  Low- 
lands there  is  an  admirable  breed  of  milch  cattle,  independently  of  those 
that  are  grazed  there  for  the  butcher,  which,  from  whatever  source  they 
originated,  owe  much  to  the  care  and  selection  of  judicious  breeders. 
At  some  period  or  other  there  has  evidently  been  a  cross  of  the  Dur- 
ham or  Holderness,  and  perhaps  also  of  the  Alderney.  This  breed, 
which  became  established  from  the  middle  to  the  close  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  has  found  its  way  not  only  into  England,  but  also  into  Ireland 
and  Wales,  recommended  by  the  excellency  of  the  cows  as  milkers, 
although  they  are  under  the  middle  size.  It  has  been  estimated  that  a 
good  Ayrshire  cow  will  yield,  for  two  or  three  months  after  calving,  five 
gallons  of  milk  daily;  for  the  next  three  months  three  gallons  daily,  and 
a  gallon  and  a  half  for  the  following  three  months.  This  milk  is  calcu- 
lated to  return  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  butter  annually, 
or  five  hundred  pounds  of  cheese.  The  foregoing  estimate  is,  however, 
somewhat  exaggerated ;  and  perhaps  during  the  best  of  the  season  four 


100 


DOMESTIC   ANIMAL8. 


CATTLE.  101 

or  four  and  a  half  gallons  of  milk  is  the  average  product  daily  of  a  good 
cow,  kept  in  fair  condition.  Every  thirty-two  gallons  of  unskimmed 
milk  will  yield  about  twenty-four  pounds  of  cheese,  and  ninety  gallons 
twenty-four  pounds  of  butter.  We  are  supposing  a  good  farm  and  a 
first-rate  stock  of  Ayrshire  cows;  and  considering  the  size  of  the  cattle, 
this  return  from  each  cow  is  very  considerable.  The  mode  in  which 
the  cows  are  treated  by  an  enterprising  and  successful  farmer  of  Kirkum 
is  thus  detailed  :  "lie  keeps  his  cows  constantly  in  the  byre  (or  shed) 
till  the  grass  has  risen  so  as  to  afford  them  a  full  bite.  Many  put  them 
out  every  good  day  through  the  winter  and  spring,  but  they  poach  the 
ground  with  their  feet,  and  nip  up  the  young  grass  as  it  begins  to 
spring,  which,  as  they  have  not  a  full  meal,  injures  the  cattle.  When- 
ever the  weather  becomes  dry  and  hot,  he  feeds  his  cows  on  cut  grass 
in  the  byre,  from  six  o'clock  in  the  morning  to  six  at  night,  and  turns 
them  out  to  pasture  the  other  twelve  hours.  When  rain  comes,  the 
house  feeding  is  discontinued.  Whenever  the  pasture  grass  begins  to 
fciil  in  harvest,  the  cows  receive  a  supply  of  the  second  growth  of  clover, 
and  afterward  of  turnips  strewed  over  the  pasture-ground.  When  the 
weather  becomes  stormy,  in  the  months  of  October  and  November,  the 
cows  are  kept  in  the  byre  during  the  night,  and  in  a  short  time  after- 
ward during  both  night  and  day;  they  are  then  fed  on  oat-straw  and 
turnips,  and  continue  to  yield  a  considerable  quantity  of  milk  for  some 
time.  Part  of  the  turnip  crop  is  eaten  at  the  end  of  harvest  and  begin- 
ning of  winter,  to  protract  the  milk,  and  part  is  stored  up  for  green  food 
during  the  winter.  After  this  store  is  exhausted,  the  Swedish  turnip  and 
potatoes  are  used  along  Avith  dry  fodder,  till  the  grass  can  support  the  cows. 
Chaff,  oats,  and  potatoes  are  boiled  for  the  cows  after  calving,  and  they 
are  generally  fed  on  rye-grass  during  the  latter  part  of  the  sprino-." 

The  improved  Ayrshire  cow  of  the  present  day  has  the  head  small, 
but  rather  long,  and  narrow  at  the  muzzle,  though  the  space  between 
the  roots  of  the  horns  is  considerable  ;  the  horns  are  small  and  crooked, 
the  eye  is  clear  and  lively,  the  neck  long  and  slender,  and  almost  desti- 
tute of  a  dewlap  ;  the  shoulders  are  thin,  a^id  the  fore-quarters  generally 
light;  the  back  is  straight  and  broad  behind,  especially  across  the  hips, 
which  are  roomy;  the  tail  is  long  and  thin.  The  carcass  is  deep,  the 
udder  capacious  and  square,  the  milk-vein  large  and  prominent;  the 
limbs  are  small  and  short,  but  well  knit;  the  thighs  are  thin  ;  the  skin 
is  rather  thin,  but  loose  and  soft,  and  covered  with  soft  hair.  The 
general  figure,  though  small,  is  well  proportioned.  The  color  is  varied 
with  raino-led  white  and  sandy  red. 

Whether  the  Ayrshires  are  judged  by  their  actual  produce,  or  by  the 
external  points  which  by  experience  and  observation  are  acknowledged 
to  denote  dairy  qualities,  it  must  be  admitted  that  they  take  a  high 
rank.  From  a  fair  consideration  of  their  merits,  it  is  believed  that  their 
adoption  for  the  dairy  would  secure  the  following  advantages  over  the 
stock  commonly  kept  for  that  purpose  in  this  country  : 

1.  A  greater  quantity  of  milk,  butter  and  cheese  for  the  food  con- 
sumed. 2.  Greater  uniformity  in  the  general  character  of  the  stock 
from  its  inherent  or  hereditary  qualities.  3.  Better  symmetry  and  con- 
stitution, and  greater  tendency  to  gain  flesh  when  not  giving  milk. 

Sd 


102 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


"^^   \, 


CATTLE.  103 

At  the  present  time  tliere  are  several  breeders  in  the  State  of  New 
York  who  are  turning  their  attention  to  the  Ayrshires.  The  principal 
stocks  known  to  the  writer  are  those  of  E.  V.  Prentice,  near  Albany; 
L.  G.  Morris,  Fordham,  Westchester  county ;  and  J.  C.  Tiffany,  Coxsackie. 
Of  these  Mr.  Prentice's  comprises  the  largest  number,  over  twenty 
head.  They  have  been  derived  from  the  imported  cow  Ayr,  the  im- 
portations of  Mr.  Ward,  Captain  Randall,  Mr.  Lawson,  and  Mr.  Shurt- 
leff,  of  Massachusetts,  and  one  or  two  other  imported  animals. 

The  Aldei'n?ys  or  Jerseys. — The  Jersey  cow  is  a  singularly  dociie  and 
S^entie  animal;  the  male,  on  the  contrary,  is  apt  to  become  fierce  after 
two  years  of  age.  In  those  bred  on  the  heights  of  St.  Ouen,  St.  Brelade, 
and  St.  Mary,  there  is  a  hardiness  and  sound  constitution  that  enables 
them  to  meet  even  a  Scotch  winter  without  injury;  those  bred  in  the 
low  grounds  and  rich  pastures  are  of  larger  carcass,  but  are  more  deli- 
cate in  constitution. 

Of  the  ancient  race  it  was  stated,  perhaps  with  truth,  that  it  had  no 
tendency  to  fatten  ;  indeed  some  cows  of  the  old  breed  were  so  ungainly, 
high-boned,  and  ragged  in  form — Meg  Merriliesof  cows — that  no  attempt 
to  fatten  them  might  succeed,  the  great  quantities  of  milk  and  cream 
which  they  produced  probably  absorbing  all  their  fattening  properties. 

Yet  careful  attention  to  crossing  has  greatly  remedied  this  defect. 
By  having  studied  the  h  ibits  of  a  good  cow  with  a  little  more  ten- 
dency to  fatten  than  others,  and  crossing  her  with  a  fleshy,  well-con- 
ditioned bull,  of  a  race  that  was  also  known  to  produce  quality  and 
quantity  of  butter — the  next  generation  has  proved  of  a  rounder  form, 
with  a  tendency  to  make  fat,  without  having  lost  the  butyraceous 
nature. 

Some  of  these  improved  animals  have  fattened  so  rapidly  while  being 
stall-fed,  from  the  month  of  December  to  March,  as  to  suffer  in  parturi- 
tion, when  both  cow  and  calf  have  been  lost;  to  prevent  which  it  is  in- 
dispensable to  lower  the  condition  of  the  cow,  or  bleed,  in  good  time. 
Such  animals  will  fatten  rapidly.  Their  beef  is  excellent;  the  only  de- 
fect being  in  the  color  of  the  fat,  which  is  sometimes  too  yellow.  It  is 
now  a  fair  question,  whether  the  improved  breed  may  not  fatten  as 
rapidly  as  any  breed  known. 

It  was  anciently  thought  that  the  cream  from  the  Jersey  cow  was 
too  rich  for  making  cheese.  Mr.  Le  Feuvre,  of  La  Houge,  who  has  a 
fine  breed  of  cows,  tried  the  experiment  two  years  since,  and  succeeded 
to  admiration.  It  was  made  from  the  pure  milk,  cream  and  all,  as  it 
comes  from  the  cow.  It  was  found  that  the  quantity  of  milk  that  would 
have  produced  a  pound  of  butter,  afibrded  one  pound  and  a  half  of 
cheese. 

From  the  quantity  of  milk  which  produced  a  cheese  of  twenty  pounds' 
weight,  the  drainings'  oi  \\\q  curds  and  whey,  on  being  churned,  yielded 
four  pounds  of  butter.  This  butter  was  of  an  inferior  quality  when 
eaten  with  bread,  but  was  superior  to  any  other  for  the  making  of  pastry; 
it  was  peculiarly  hard,  and  of  excellent  texture  for  such  nse  in  the  hot 
weather.  The  writer  has  tasted  cheeses  from  Mr.  Le  Feuvre's  farm 
quite  equal  in  quality  to  the  richest  double-Glo'ster. 

On  one  or  two  farms,  besides  General  Fouzel's,  butter  is  made  from 


104 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


CATTLE.  105 

clouted  cream  in  tlie  Devonshire  mode ;  but  as  this  is  not  peculiar  to 
Jersey,  it  is  not  noticed  further  than  that  ten  pounds  of  butter  are 
usually  made  in  five  minutes  by  this  process.  The  usual  way  of  pro- 
curintT  the  cream  is  by  placing  the  milk  in  pans  about  six  inches  deep, 
the  glazed  shallow  earthenware  having  taken  the  place  of  the  unglazed 
deep  vessels. 

It  is  admitted  that  the  richest  milk  and  cream  are  produced  by  cows 
whose  ears  have  a  yellow  or  orange  color  within.  Some  of  the  best 
cows  give  twenty-six  quarts  of  milk  in  twenty-four  hours,  and  fourteen 
pounds  of  butter  from  such  milk  in  one  week.  Such  are  rare.  Good  cows 
afford  twenty  quarts  of  milk  daily,  and  ten  pounds  of  butter  weekly,  in  the 
spring  and  summer  months.  Butter  is  made  every  second  or  third  day. 
Lactometers  indicate  the  degrees  of  richness  of  cream  which  the 
milk  of  any  cow  affords,  with  great  nicety.  This  varies  with  ditFerent 
food.  The  mode  is  to  fill  the  lactometer  up  to  zero  with  the  first  milk 
that  is  drawn  from  the  cow  in  the  morning ;  then,  when  the  udder  is 
nearly  emptied,  to  fill  a  second  lactometer  with  the  residue  of  the  milk, 
throwing  a  little  out  of  the  lactometer,  to  refill  it  to  zero  with  the  very 
last  drops  which  can  be  drawn  from  the  cow  :  these  will  be  nearly  all 
cream.  The  lactometer  filled  with  the  first  milking  may  only  indicate 
four  degrees  of  cream,  while  that  filled  with  the  last  milking  may  indi- 
cate forty  degrees  of  cream.  Then,  by  dividing  the  sum  total,  forty-four 
by  two,  we  have  twenty-two  degrees  of  cream,  which  a  very  good  cow  will 
produce  ;  others  so  little  as  ten  or  fifteen. 

Jersey  butter  made  when  the  cows  are  partially  fed  on  parsnips,  or 
white  carrots  and  grass  in  September  and  October,  when  salted  and 
potted  will  keep  till  the  following  spring,  preserving  as  well  as  Irish 
butter,  with  a  much  less  rank  flavor. 

The  foregoing,  from  Colonel  J.  Le  Couteur,  of  the  Island  of  Jersey, 
one  of  the  most  intelligent  breeders  and  judges  of  this  breed  of  cattle, 
and  the  accompanying  illustrations  of  the  improved  animals,  show  that 
they  are  not  now  the  angular,  ill-shapen  animals  they  once  were  ;  but 
that,  like  the  Ayrshires,  they  are  worthy  the  attention  of  our  dairymen. 

The  Yorkshire  Cow. — Having  given  instances  of  milk-producing  cows 
from  the  middle-horn  and  crumpled-horn  breeds,  we  place  next  one  of 
the  short-horn  class;  not,  indeed,  the  high  bred  Duiham  short-horn, 
but  a  large  capacious  animal,  possessing  several  of  its  qualities,  and 
giving  a  large  quantity  of  milk,  with  as  much  aptitude  to  fatten  as  is 
consistent  with  the  production  of  milk,  and  hence  is  selected  by  the 
dairymen  of  large  towns,  and  especially  of  London,  for  the  supply  of 
milk  for  a  given  period,  and  then  to  be  fatted  on  distillers'  refuse,  and 
other  waste  matters  which  a  town  will  afford,  and  thus  o-ive  a  double 
pay  to  the  dairyman. 

The  Yorkshire  cow  is  of  much  larger  size  than  either  of  those  we 
have  been  considering;  and,  when  fat,  will  weigh  from  eight  to  eleven 
hundred  pounds.  Her  head  is  fine,  and  somewhat  small ;  there  is  a 
serene  placidity  of  eye,  which  shows  a  mild  and  gentle  disposition,  tend- 
ing alike  to  produce  fat  and  milk.  The  horns  are  small  and  white,  the 
muzzle  without  black  spots;  the  breast  deep  and  prominent,  but  that 
and  the  shoulders  thin  ;  the  neck  somewhat  narrow,  but  full  below  the 
6* 


106 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


CATTLE.  107 

shoulders,  and  without  any  loose  skin  ;  the  barrel  somewhat  round  ;  the 
belly  capacious;  milk-vein  large;  back  perfectly  straight ;  rump  wide, 
and  flat  as  a  table;  tail  small,  and  set  on  so  that  there  is  almost  a 
straight  line  from  the  tail  to  the  head.  The  prevailing  color  is  roan,  or 
red  or  white;  and  sometimes  white,  with  the  tips  of  the  ears  red.  The 
thighs  are  thin ;  but  the  legs  are  straight  and  somewhat  short.  The 
udder  is  very  large  and  muscular,  projecting  forward,  well  filled  up  be- 
hind, and  so  broad  as  to  give  the  cow  the  appearance  of  a  waddle  in 
her  walking.  Indeed,  her  qualities  are  not  inappropriately  described  in 
some  doggerel  lines  often  quoted ;  and  t^vo  of  the  verses  we  shall  ven- 
ture to  give,  as  most  aptly  descriptive  of  the  Yorkshire  cow 

"She's  broad  in  her  ribs,  and  long  in  her  rump, 
A  straight  and  flat  back  without  ever  a  hump; 
She's  wide  in  lier  hips,  and  cahii  in  lier  eyes ; 
She's  fine  in  her  slioulders,  and  thin  in  her  tliighs 

"  She's  hght  in  her  neck,  and  small  in  her  tail, 
She's  wide  in  her  breast,  and  good  at  the  pail; 
She's  fine  in  lier  bone,  and  silky  of  skin; 
She's  a  grazier's  without,  and  a  butcher's  within." 

The  quantity  of  milk  given  by  these  cows  by  far  exceeds  that  of  any 
others,  though  less  perhaps  than  that  of  some  others  in  proportion  to 
her  size.  The  writer  has  had  instances  where  as  much  as  thirty  quarts 
per  day,  in  summer,  have  been  given.  The  distended  udder  has  so 
swollen  before  calving,  that  she  was  obliged  to  be  milked  several  days 
before  she  calved;  and,  after  calving,  had  to  be  milked  three  times  a 
day,  for  fear  of  the  consequences  of  an  over-distended  udder.  She, 
moreover,  gave  a  large  quantity  of  butter  as  well  as  milk,  and  soon  after 
calving  she  has  given  fifteen  pounds  per  week. 

All  these  things  being  considered,  and  taking  into  account  the  car 
cass  value  of  the  cow  after  she  has  yielded  her  milk,  it  is  not  too  much 
to  say  that  there  is  no  breed  of  cows  so  highly  gifted  with  milk-secret- 
ing qualities  who  are  also  otherwise  so  profitable  as  the  Yorkshire. 

The  Leicestershire  Breed. — The  old  breed  of  England  has  had  a  more 
successful  struggle  for  existence  than  the  native  breed  of  Gloucester- 
shire. It  was  here  that  Bakewell  exerted  his  talents  to  improve  the 
long-horned  breed  of  cattle,  and,  though  he  succeeded  in  removing  the 
coarseness  from  these  animals,  and  increased  their  tendency  to  fatten,  it 
appears  he  did  not  attain  the  object  of  either  establishing  or  improving 
their  dairying  qualities;  and  hence  his  breed  is  but  little  prized  by  the 
Leicestershire  dairymen,  who  prefer  the  coarser  and  larger  animals, 
which  give  large  quantities  of  good  milk,  to  those  which  have  less  milk- 
giving  capabilities,  but  are  more  suitable  for  the  grazier. 

The  yield  of  cheese,  rather  than  that  of  milk,  is  the  object  of  the 
dairymen  of  Leicestei*shire.  A  good  cow  will  give  some  four  hundred 
pounds  of  cheese,  and  produce  as  many  gallons  of  milk  in  the  year, 
allowing  for  the  seven  weeks  when  she  is  supposed  to  be  dry.  In  some 
districts  the  cows  are  kept  for  six,  or  seven,  and  even  more  years,  espe- 
cially when  they  are  good  cheese  producers ;  for  it  is  of  more  conse- 
quence to  the  farmer  to  have  a  cow  which,  i'o:  six  years,  gives  him  an 


108  DOMESTIC   ANIMAJLS. 

annual  supply  of  the  stock-in-trade  of  his  farm — his  cheese — than  to 
get  a  few  pounds  more  or  less  when  she  is  sold.  Indeed  a  smaller  dif- 
ference really  takes  place  than  may  be  at  first  imagined.  The  rich 
Leicestershire  grass  enables  the  farmer,  on  a  large  scale  at  least,  to  sell  off 
his  cattle  fat,  which  would  have  been  disposed  of  for  the  dairy.  Hence 
as  old  cows  of  any  kind  are  not  expected  to  be  very  valuable  grazers, 
he  does  not  expect  her  to  do  wonders ;  and  if  he  succeeds  in  getting  her 
moderately  fat,  he  is  satisfied  to  take  a  smaller  price  per  stone  for  her 
beef  than  is  received  for  a  primer  animal. 

The  Cheshire  Breed  is,  like  that  of  Gloucestershire,  or  even  more  so, 
becoming  rapidly  extinct.  The  old  breed  of  the  county  was,  like  that 
of  most  dairy  districts,  a  long-horned  variety ;  but  the  vicinity  of  the 
largo-town  dairy  system,  introduced  into  the  country  by  the  springing 
up  of  large  towns,  has  brought  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  short-horn  cow 
of  Yorkshire  into  competition  with  the  native  breed ;  the  extra  quan- 
tity of  milk  they  produce  has  been  regarded  somewhat  more  than  its 
quality,  and,  in  consequence,  the  character  of  the  Cheshire  cheese  has 
somewhat  deteriorated  in  the  markets. 

The  Dorsetshire  Breed. — In  this,  as  in  most  dairy  districts,  the  milk  is 
rather  an  object  than  either  form  or  fat,  and  hence  a  somewhat  coarse, 
ill-shapen  class  of  cattle  prevails.  The  cattle  are  of  a  long-horn  breed, 
large,  and  coarse,  principally  of  a  red  color,  with  flat  chests  and  buttocks. 
Attempts  have  been  made  to  cross  this  also  with  the  Devon,  Hereford, 
and  Ayrshire  breeds,  but  this  does  not  appear  to  have  succeeded ;  and 
the  only  advance  the  dairymen  have  been  enabled  to  make  in  this  coun- 
ty has  been  to  introduce  one  Alderney  cow  to  a  dairy  for  every  ten  or 
twelve  of  the  native  breed  ;  this  is  found  to  have  a  very  beneficial  ten- 
dency, to  increase  the  quantity  of  cream,  and  to  improve  much  the 
quality  of  the  butter. 

The  Kerry  Breed. — Crossing  the  Irish  Channel,  there  is  a  hardy  small- 
sized  cow  celebrated  as  a  cottier's  dairy-cow — the  neat  pet-like  cow  of 
Kerry.  Her  placid  countenance,  patient,  meek  deportment,  fine  head 
and  legs,  her  small  tail,  fine  shoulders,  breast,  and  quarters,  and  her 
skinny  udder  and  large  milk-vein,  bespeak  the  characteristics  of  the 
milker,  and  well  they  may,  for  she  is  a  treasure  to  the  cottage  farmer! 
— so  hardy,  that  she  will  live  where  other  cattle  will  starve  ;  she  will 
yield  milk  at  the  expense  of  her  own  muscles,  nay,  will  yield  it  abund- 
antly when  they  seem  all  but  gone;  and  will  give  it  also  of  quality  so 
rich,  that  she  is  a  perfect  machine  for  converting  the  hardest  and  coarsest 
cattle-food  into  rich  and  nutritious  milk  and  butter. 

FAT-PR()1)UCING  BREEDS  OF  CATTLE.— Whatever  theoretical  objections 
may  be  raised  against  overfed  cattle,  and  groat  as  may  be  the  attempts 
to  disparage  the  "mountains  of  fat,"  as  highly-fed  cattle  are  sometimes 
designated,  there  is  no  doubt  of  the  practical  fact,  that  the  best  butcher 
cannot  sell  any  thing  but  the  best-fatted  beef;  and  of  whatever  age, 
size,  or  shape,  a  half-fatted  ox  may  be,  he  is  never  selected  by  judges 
as  fit  for  human  food.  Hence  a  well-fatted  animal  always  commands  a 
better  price  per  pound  than  one  imperfectly  fed,  and  the  parts  selected 
as  the  primest  beef  are  just  the  parts  where  there  are  the  largest  de- 
posits  of  tat.     The  rump,  the  crop,  and  the  sirloin,  the  very  favorite 


CATTLE.  lOS 

cuts,  which  always  command  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  per  cent,  more 
than  any  other  part  of  the  ox,  are  just  those  parts  on  which  the  largtst 
quantities  of  fat  are  found  ;  so  that  instead  of  the  taste  and  fashion  of 
the  age  being  against  the  excessive  fattening  of  animals,  it  is,  practical- 
ly, exactly  the  reverse.  Where  there  is  most  fat  there  is  the  best  lean; 
where  there  is  the  greatest  amount  of  muscle  without  its  share  of  fat, 
that  part  is  accounted  inferior,  and  used  for  a  different  purpose;  in 
fact,  so  far  from  fat  being  a  disease,  it  is  a  condition  of  muscle,  neces- 
sary to  its  utility  as  food — a  source  of  luxury  to  the  rich,  and  of  com- 
fort to  the  poor,  furnishing  a  nourishing  and  healthy  diet  for  their 
families. 

Fattening  is  a  secretive  power  which  grazing  animals  possess,  ena- 
bling them  to  lay  by  a  store  of  the  superfluous  food  they  take  for  sea- 
sons of  cold  or  scarcity.  It  collects  round  the  angular  bones  of  the 
animal,  and  gives  the  appearance  of  rotundity ;  hence  the  tendency  to 
deposit  fat  is  indicated,  as  we  have  stated,  by  a  roundness  of  form,  as 
opposed  to  the  Hatness  of  a  milk-secreting  animal.  But  its  greatest  use 
is,  that  it  is  a  store  of  heat-producing  aliment,  laid  up  for  seasons  of 
scarcity  and  want.  The  food  of  animals  for  the  most  part  may  be  said 
to  consist  of  a  saccharine,  an  oleaginous,  and  an  albuminous  principle. 
To  the  first  belong  all  the  starchy,  saccharine,  and  gummy  parts  of  the 
plants,  which  undergo  changes  in  the  digestive  organs  similar  to  fer- 
mentation before  they  can  be  assimilated  in  the  system  ;  by  them  also 
animal  heat  is  sustained.  In  indolent  animals  the  only  parts  of  plants 
are  deposited  and  laid  up  as  fat ;  and,  when  vigor  and  strength  fail,  it 
is  taken  up,  and  also  used  in  breathing  to  supply  the  place  of  the  con- 
sumed saccharine  matter.  The  albuminous,  or  gelatinous  principle  of 
plants,  is  mainly  useful  in  forming  muscle,  while  the  ashes  of  plants,  the 
unconsumable  parts,  are  for  the  supply,  mainly,  of  bone,  hair,  and  horn, 
but  also  of  muscle  and  of  blood,  and  to  supply  the  waste,  which  con- 
tinually goes  on.  Now,  there  are  several  qualities  which  are  essentially 
characteristic  of  a  disposition  to  fatten.  There  have  not,  as  yet,  been 
any  book-rules  laid  down,  as  in  the  case  of  Mr.  Guenon's  indications  of 
milking  cows;  but  there  are  marks  so  definite  and  well  understood, 
that  they  are  comprehended  and  acted  upon  by  every  grazier,  although 
they  are  by  no  means  easy  to  describe.  It  is  by  skillful  acumen  that 
the  grazier  acquires  his  knowledge,  and  not  by  theoi'etical  rules;  obser- 
vation, judgment,  and  experience,  powerful  perceptive  faculties  and  a 
keen  and  minute  discrimination  and  comparison,  are  essential  to  his 
success. 

The  first  indication  he  relies  on  is  the  touch.  It  is  the  absolute  crite- 
rion of  quality,  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  keystone  of  perfection  in 
all  animals,  whether  for  the  pail  or  the  butcher.  The  skin  is  so  in- 
timately connected  with  the  internal  organs,  in  all  animals,  that  it  is 
questionable  whether  even  the  schools  of  medicine  might  not  make  more 
use  of  it,  in  a  diagnosis  of  disease.  Of  physiological  tendencies  in  cat- 
tle, however,  it  is  of  the  last  and  most  vital  importance.  It  must  neither 
be  thick,  nor  hard,  nor  adhere  firmly  to  the  muscles.  If  it  is  so,  the 
animal  is  a  hard  grazer,  a,  difficult  and  obstinate  feeder — no  skillful 
man  will  purchase  her — she  must  go  to  a  novice,  and  even  to  him  at  a 


110  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

price  so  low  as  to  tempt  him  to  be  a  purchaser.  On  tlie  other  hand, 
the  skin  must  not  be  thin,  like  paper,  nor  flaccid,  nor  loose  in  the  hand, 
cor  flabby.  This  is  the  opposite  extreme,  and  is  indicative  of  delicate- 
ness,  bad,  flabby  flesh,  and  possibly  of  inaptitude  to  retain  the  fat.  It 
must  be  elastic  and  velvety,  soft  and  pliable,  presenting  to  the  touch  a 
gentle  resistance,  but  so  delicate  as  to  give  pleasure  to  the  sensitive 
hand — a  skin,  in  short,  which  seems  at  first  to  give  an  indentation 
from  the  pressure  of  the  fingers,  but  which  again  rises  to  its  place  by  a 
gentle  elasticity.  The  hair  is  of  nearly  as  mnch  importance  as  the 
skin.  A  hard  skin  will  have  straight  and  stiff  hair;  it  will  not  have  a 
curl,  but  be  thinly  and  lankly  distributed  equally  over  the  surfs^ce.  A 
proper  grazing  animal  will  have  a  mossy  coat,  not  absolutely  curled,  but 
having  a  disposition  to  a  graceful  curl,  a  semifold,  which  presents  a 
waving  inequality,  but  as  difierent  from  a  close  and  straightly-laid  coat, 
as  it  is  from  one  standing  otf  the  animal  at  right  angles,  a  strong  symp- 
tom of  disease.  It  will  also,  in  a  thriving  animal,  be  licked  here  and 
there  with  its  tongue,  a  proof  that  the  skin  is  duly  performing  its  func- 
tions. There  must  be  also  the  full  and  goggle  eye,  bright  and  pressed 
outward  by  the  fatty  bed  below,  because,  as  this  is  a  part  where  nature 
always  provides  fat,  an  animal  capable  of  developing  it  to  any  consider- 
able extent  will  have  its  indications  here,  at  least  when  it  exists  in 
excess. 

So  much  for  feeding  qualities  in  the  animal,  and  their  conformations 
indicative  of  this  kindly  disposition.  Next  come  such  formations  of  the 
animal  itself  as  are  favorable  to  the  growth  of  fat,  other  things  being 
equal.  There  must  be  size  where  large  weights  are  expected.  Christ- 
mas-beef, for  instance,  is  expected  to  be  large  as  well  as  fat.  The  symbol 
of  festivity  should  be  capacious  as  well  as  prime  in  quality.  But  it  is 
so  much  a  matter  of  choice  and  circumstance  with  the  grazier  that 
profit  alone  will  be  his  guide.  The  axiom  will  be,  however,  as  a  general 
rule,  that  the  better  the  grazing  soil  the  larger  the  animal  may  be;  the 
poorer  the  soil  the  smaller  the  animal.  Small  animals  are  unquestion- 
ably much  more  easily  fed,  and  they  are  well  known  by  experienced  men 
to  be  those  best  adapted  to  second-rate  feedmg  pastures.  But  beyond 
this  there  must  be  breadth  of  carcass.  This  is  indicative  of  fattening 
perhaps  beyond  all  other  qualifications.  If  rumps  are  favorite  joints, 
and  produce  the  best  price,  it  is  best  to  have  the  animal  which  will  grow 
the  longest,  the  broadest,  and  the  best  rump  ;  the  same  of  crop,  and  the 
same  of  sirloin  ;  and  not  only  so,  but  breadth  is  essential  to  the  con- 
sumption of  that  quantity  of  food  which  is  necessary  to  the  development 
of  a  large  amount  of  fat  in  the  animal.  Thus  a  deep  wide  chest,  favor- 
able for  the  respiratory  and  circulating  functions,  enables  it  to  consume 
a  lai'ge  amount  of  food,  to  burn  up  the  sugary  matter,  and  to  deposit 
the  fatty  matter — as  then  useless  for  respiration,  but  hereafter  to  be 
prized.  A  full  level  crop  will  be  of  the  same  physiological  utility,  while 
abroad  and  open  framework  at  the  hips  will  alford  scope  for  the  action 
of  the  liver  and  kidneys. 

'I'here  are  other  points  also  of  much  impoi'tance ;  the  head  must  be 
small  and  fine;  its  special  use  is  indicative  of  the  quick  fattening  of  the 
animal  so  constructed,  and  also  it  is  indicative  of  the  bones  being  small 


CAITLE.  Ill 

and  the  legs  short.  For  constitutional  powers,  the  beast  should  have  his 
ribs  extended  well  toward  the  thigh-bones  or  hips,  so  as  to  leave  as 
little  unprotected  space  as  possible.  There  must  be  no  angular  or 
abrupt  points;  all  must  be  round,  and  broad,  and  parallel.  Any  de- 
pression in  the  lean  animal,  will  give  a  deficient  deposit  of  flesli  and 
fat  at  that  point,  when  sold  to  the  butcher,  and  thus  deteriorate  its 
vahie ;  and  hence  the  animal  must  be  round  and  full.  But  either  fancy, 
or  accident,  or  skill — we  will  not  pretend  to  say  which — has  associated 
symmetry  with  quality  and  conformation,  as  a  point  of  great  importance 
in  animals  calculatecl  for  fattening ;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that,  to  a 
certain  extent,  this  is  so.  The  beast  must  be  a  system  of  mathematical 
lines.  To  the  advocate  of  symmetry  the  setting  on  of  a  tail  will  be  a 
condemning  fault;  indeed,  the  ridge  of  the  back,  like  a  straight  line, 
with  the  outline  of  the  belly  exactly  parallel,  viewed  from  the  side,  and 
a  depth  and  squareness  when  viewed  from  behind,  which  remind  us  of 
a  geometrical  cube  rather  than  a  vital  economy,  may  be  said  to  be  the 
indications  of  excellence  in  a  fat  ox.  These  qualities  are  inherent  in 
some  breeds  ;  there  may  be  cases  and  instances  in  all  the  superior  breeds, 
and  in  most  there  may  be  failures. 

By  far  the  first  in  the  list  for  feeding  excellence  are — 

The  Short-Horn  or  Durham  Breed. — The  origin  of  the  breed  is  involved  in 
great  obscurity.  They  are  supposed  by  some  to  be  traced  into  Holder- 
ness;  and  to  have  been  imported  from  Holstein,  according  to  others; 
from  continental  Europe  they  certainly  seem  to  have  come;  and,  being 
successively  improved  by  a  variety  of  breeders,  they  have  ended  in  that 
distinct  race  of  animals,  extraordinary  beyond  all  others  for  their  as- 
tonishing propensities  to  feed.  Others,  again,  refer  their  origin  to  a 
native  race  of  cattle  called  the  Teeswater,  because  they  have  from 
time  immemorial  inhabited  the  valley  which  the  Tees  has  formed  by 
its  washings  down  of  the  mountain  limestone  rocks,  in  which  it  has  its 
origin  ;  these,  it  is  said,  being  crossed  by  the  Holderness  importations, 
gradually  became  a  new  race. 

The  late  Mr.  Bates  traces  back  the  short-horns  to  a  breed  in  the 
possession  of  the  Aslabies  of  Studley,  and  the  Rev.  H.  Berry  to  an  im- 
provement in  the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  by  the  importation  of  a 
breed  from  Holland  by  Sir  W.St.  Quintin  of  Scampston.  Of  these  early 
ages  of  the  short-horns,  however,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  more 
than  this — that  a  breed  from  time  immemorial  inhabited  the  valley  of 
the  Tees,  and,  trained  and  bred  to  feed,  for  a  vast  succession  of  genera- 
tions, on  its  fertile  deposits,  acquired  the  habits  of  speedy  fat-forming; 
for  in  these  valleys,  where  hay  alone  will  feed  the  largest  ox,  the  pro- 
duction of  fat  would  be  so  far  an  object  that  breeders  would  always 
select  the  best  and  easiest  feeding  animals;  and  thus  the  character  of 
the  district,  through  a  number  of  centuries,  might  easily  lay  the  ground- 
work of  that  improvement  which  the  Wilbanks,  the  Greys,  the  Booths, 
the  Coates,  and,  above  all,  the  Collings,  have  efiected. 

We  will  give  the  latest  description  of  the  qualities  of  the  modern 
short-horn  from  the  most  recent  authority,  Mr.  Dickson.  After  referring 
to  the  general  symmetry  of  the  frame  and  its  delicate  color,  either  deep- 
red  cream-colored,  white,  or  delicate  roan — the  latter  the  most  fashion- 


113 


DOMESTIC   Al^IMALS. 


CATTLE.  113 

able  and  indeed  prevailing  color — he  speaks  of  it  as  possessing  "the 
mellowest  touch,  supported  on  small  clean  limbs,  showing,  like  those  of 
the  greyhound  and  the  race-horse,  the  union  of  strength  with  fineness, 
and  ornamented  with  a  small,  lengthy,  tapering  head,  neatly  set  on  a 
broad,  firm,  deep  neck ;  furnished  with  a  small  muzzle,  wide  nostrils, 
prominent  mildly-beaming  eyes;  thin,  large,  veiny  ears,  set  near  the 
crown  of  the  head,  and  protected  in  front  with  semicircularly-bent 
white  or  waxy-colored  short,  smooth,  pointed  horns;  all  these  several 
parts  combine  to  form  a  symmetrical  harmony  which  has  never  been 
surpassed  in  beauty  and  sweetness  by  any  other  species  of  the  domesti- 
cated ox." 

Keeping  in  mind  what  was  said  to  be  the  perfection  of  a  fat  animal, 
the  same  authority,  speaking  of  the  short-horn,  says  :  "  We  have  a 
straight  level  back  from  behind  the  horns  to  the  top  of  the  tail,  full 
buttocks,  and  a  projecting  brisket;  we  have,  in  short,  the  rectangular- 
form  ;  we  have  also  the  level  line  across  the  hook-bones  (hip),  and  the 
level  top  of  the  shoulder  across  the  ox,  and  perpendicular  lines  down  the 
hind  and  fore  legs  on  both  sides  ;  these  constituting  the  square  form 
when  the  ox  is  viewed  before  and  behind  ;  and  we  have  straight  parallel 
lines  from  the  sides  of  the  shoulders  along  the  utmost  parts  of  the 
ribs  and  the  sides  of  the  hind  quarters;  and  we  have  these  lines  con- 
nected at  their  ends  by  others  of  shorter  and  equal  length  across  the 
end  of  the  rump  and  the  top  of  the  shoulder;  thus  constituting  the 
rectangular  form  of  the  ox  when  viewed  from  above  down  the  back." 

It  will  be  very  wide  from  our  purpose  to  show  either  the  immense 
amount  of  fat  which  has  at  one  time  or  another  accumulated  on  the 
backs  of  these  w^onderful  animals,  or  the  speed  with  which  this  has  been 
done.  Neither  would  it  tend  much  to  elucidate  the  principles  of  breed- 
ing or  grazing  to  detail  at  any  length  the  prices  which  short-horns  have 
commanded  and  do  command. 

Nor  is  it  in  their  rapid  fattening  alone  that  this  race  of  cattle  excels. 
They  are,  beyond  all  question,  the  most  remarkable  for  early  maturity. 
Fat  deposits  are  generally  the  result  of  a  mature  state  of  the  animal. 
There  are  few  animals  who  will  lay  it  on,  to  any  degree,  at  least,  until 
they  are  fully  formed.  The  short-horn  is  an  exception.  They  com- 
mence the  fat-forming  process  as  calves.  This  seems  to  increase  with 
their  growth,  and  at  a  year  old  they  have  all  the  semblance  of  cows. 

The  feeders  of  short-horns,  instead  of  keeping  them  to  three,  four,  or 
five  years  of  age,  fatten  them  and  sell  them  off  at  from  two  to  two  and 
a  half  years  ;  they  can  thus  turn  oft'  one-half  more  at  least,  if  not  a 
greater  proportion,  of  beef,  from  their  farms  or  their  stalls,  than  could 
possibly  be  done  with  any  other  breed.  Hence  they  have  quick  returns 
and  large  amounts  of  beef  for  the  food-consumer.  We  will  not  deny 
that  the  short-horn  requires  good  keep,  and  shelter,  and  care.  She 
needs  nourishing  diet ;  but  she  pays  for  all,  for  she  is  a  cow  when  another 
is  a  calf — the  ox  is  fat  when  the  other  is  growing.  Hence  the  shoit- 
horn  stands  the  very  first  on  the  list  of  the  fat-producing  breeds  of 
cattle. 

The  Hereford  Breed. — This  is  a  middle-horn  breed  of  cattle,  npon  which 
a  good  deal   of  pains  has  lately  been  taken.      The  success  of  short- 


114:  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

horn  breeders, — of  the  Booth^j,  the  Bates,  the  Wileys,  the  Hoppers,  and 
a  score  more  of  short-horn  patrons,  have  caused  a  healthy  emulation, 
and  the  difference  between  the  Hereford  cattle  now  exhibited,  and  those 
shown  some  ten  or  twelve  years  af>"o,  shows  not  only  that  these  breeders 
have  judgment  and  skill,  but  it  must  also  be  confessed,  that  the  breed 
have  fattening  capabilities.  The  old  Hereford  was  a  deep-brown  ani- 
mal, sometimes  with  an  ochery  cast,  free  from  white,  like  the  Devons; 
but  an  improved  breed  now  possess  the  county,  in  which  the  invariable 
fashion  is  a  dark  red,  with  a  white  face,  white  belly,  and  not  unfrequent- 
ly  a  white  back.  The  skin  is  thicker  and  less  mellow  than  that  of  the 
short-horn,  nor  has  the  hair  the  mossy  softness  or  graceful  curl  of  the 
latter.  The  eye  is  full  and  lively,  the  chest  deep  and  broad,  the  loin 
also  broad,  and  the  hips  w^ell-expanded ;  a  level  broad  rump,  a  round 
barrel,  and  full  crop,  full,  deep  flank,  well-ribbed  home;  small  bones, 
clean  and  perpendicular  thighs,  belly  almost  parallel  with  back,  head 
small.  Indeed,  color  and  symmetry  are  perhaps  the  predominant  qual- 
ifications which  secure  the  high  favor  of  the  breeder. 

From  the  above  description  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Hereford,  possess- 
ing many  essentials  in  form,  is  destitute  of  the  quality  producing  early 
maturity  and  speed}''  disposition  to  fatten.  He  lays  on  his  flesh,  soft 
and  mottled,  on  the  best  parts  ;  he  has  full  sirloins,  rumps,  and  crop, 
but  he  shows  his  beef  on  the  outside  ;  and  he  requires  much  more  time 
to  develop  his  qualities  than  the  short-horn.  In  milking  qualities  the 
cow  is  even  behind  the  ox  in  feedino-  and  it  must  in  o-eneral  be  three 
and  a  half  to  four  years  old  before  it  can  be  fatted  with  any  very  marked 
success.  They  require  a  rich  pasture,  though  a  hardy  animal,  and  the 
average  weight  when  fat  does  not  exceed  eight  to  ten  hundred  pounds. 
Herefordshire  being  more  a  breeding  than  a  feeding  county,  the  cattle 
are  reared  there,  and  sold  off  at  three  years  old  to  graze  in  the  counties 
of  Leicester,  Northampton,  and  the  rich  grass  districts;  but,  with  all  its 
good  qualities,  it  must  be  admitted  that  it  requires  from  ten  to  twelve 
months  more  to  feed  than  its  more  favored  compeer,  the  short-horn. 
We  give  a  sketch  of  first-rate  specimens.  Much  controversy  has  gone 
on  lately  as  to  the  merits  of  the  two  breeds — the  short-horn  and  the 
Hereford  ;  but  it  must  be  conceded,  that  vvhile  the  short-horn  is  pene- 
trating into  the  heart  of  Scotland,  into  the  south  of  England,  and  into 
the  county  of  Gloucester,  on  the  one  hand,  and  into  iS"orfolk  on  the 
other,  the  Hereford  is  hardly  keeping  his  ground,  he  is  making  no  in- 
roads into  any  one  important  new  grazing  district ;  and  unless  the 
gitrantic  efforts  now  made  to  amend  the  characteristics  of  the  breed 
effect  something  more,  they  will  dwindle  still  further  away. 

The  West  Ilighland  Scot.— Xext  to  the  Hereford  in  the  ranks  of  fatten- 
ing animals,  we  place  this  breed  of  cattle ;  and  they  well  deserve  it, — 
for  they  will  fatten  in  places  and  on  food  on  which  both  the  short-horn 
and  the  Hereford,  too,  would  perish.  This  West  Highland  breed  is 
somewhat  wild  in  its  nature,  and  will  not  bear  the  least  confinement, 
tying,  or  control.  It  is  eminently  gregarious,  and  if  kept  alone  will 
generally  fret  and  pine.  The  peculiarity  of  the  breed  is,  that  it  is  a 
small  animal,  generally  deep  jet-black,  pale  red,  or  dun,  seldom  any 
white  spots  on  any  part  of  the  body  ;  its  horns  are  long,  and  turned 


CATTLE. 


115 


i  f 
IF 


116  DOMESTIC   Al^mALS. 

upward  and  outward.  The  coat  is  peculiar,  soft,  lono^,  and  a"bso]utely 
curled,  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  fleece.  Another  peculiarity  is,  that  they 
form  their  beef  almost  entirely  on  the  back,  which  is  therefore  straight; 
the  body  is  round ;  and  they  lay  on  fat  rapidly  under  circurastajces  in 
which  another  animal  would  literally  starve. 

He  can  assimilate,  from  a  soil  so  barren  as  to  be  sterile  for  others,  as 
much  food  as  will  enable  him  to  feed — for  to  irrow  is  out  of  the  ques- 
tion, that  process  is  performed  on  his  native  hills;  if  indulged,  however, 
he  will  pay  for  it  in  the  rapidity  of  his  fattenino;,  and  the  excellence  of 
his  beef.  They  will  weigh,  with  amazingly  liltle  care,  from  seven  hun- 
dred to  one  thousand  pounds.  The  exceptions  to  this  rule,  however, 
are  very  important  in  special  cases.  The  Duke  of  Northumberland 
having  a  very  promising  Argylshire  "stot" — bullocks,  as  they  arc 
called  more  generally  in  England — kept  him  as  long  as  he  saw  him 
improve,  to  see  what  he  would  weigh.  He  was  five  and  a  liaH'  years 
old,  and  weighed  exclusive  of  ofFal,  one  thousand  four  hundred  and  four 
pounds.  Though,  perhaps,  one  of  the  heaviest  of  the  breed  ever  slaugh- 
tered, he  was  neither  the  fattest  nor  the  most  inactive,  but  seemed  in 
that  state  to  possess  all  the  activity  which  he  had  on  his  native  hills. 
To  give  an  idea  of  his  keeping,  and  of  the  hardihood  of  his  race,  it  is 
only  necessar}^  to  give  an  account  of  his  food.  In  the  first  winter  he 
was  turned  out  to  a  poor  pasture,  with  a  little  bad  hay  ;  in  the  summer 
he  had  again  a  poor  land  pasture  ;  in  the  next  winter  he  had  again  a 
poor  pasture,  but  a  few  turnips;  in  the  following  summer  he  had  a  fair 
pasture,  and  the  same  pasture  in  winter,  with  a  more  liberal  allowance 
of  turnips;  in  the  third  summer  he  was  tolerably  well  grazed;  in  the 
fourth  winter,  he  had  as  many  turnips  as  he  could  eat  in  the  sheltered 
straw  fold,  and  in  the  summer  in  which  he  was  fatted,  he  had  all  the 
indulgence  of  a  feeding  animal,  viz.,  cut  clover,  hay,  mangel-wurzel, 
turnips,  bean-meal,  and  a  little  oil-cake  ;  the  latter  of  which  he  always 
disliked.  Mr.  Quarl  says  his  "fat  was  distributed  in  an  uncommonly 
equable  manner,  of  a  color  resembling  the  finest  grass  butter,  and  as 
firm  as  wax;  the  muscle  was  in  ample  proportion,  bright  in  color,  of 
fine  texture,  and  beautifully  marbled  by  admixture  of  his  excellent 
fat." 

The  Devon  Breed. — If  this  had  been  a  treatise  on  drawing  cattle,  we 
should  have  placed  this  middle-horned  description  of  animals  first  in  our 
list,  instead  of  almost  last.  They  are  physiologically  well  formed  ani- 
mals; they  are  a  very  old  and  carefully-kept  distinct  breed  of  animals. 
They  are  docile  and  tractable,  patient  and  gentle ;  hardy,  notwithstand- 
ing their  warm  and  humid  climate;  but  they  are  not  first-rate  milkers, 
although  very  good  feeders.  They  will  grow  to  a  considerable  size; 
and  they  produce  a  class  of  beef  at  all  periods  of  their  growth  of  capital 
quality.  The  red  color — all  red,  and  nothing  but  red — is  a  sine  qua 
non  in  a  Devonshire  ox;  he  has  a  moderately  straight  top,  a  fine  serene 
countenance,  and  small  head;  a  somewhat  thin  skin,  covered  with  curly 
hair.  The  rump  is  nari-ower  than  in  the  short-horns  and  the  chine 
lighter  and  flatter;  but  the  brisket  is  large  and  full,  the  legs  fi  le,  the 
shoulder  slanting,  the  neck  long  and  thin.  He  is  a  beast  of  draught, 
and  for  this  he  is  unequaled. 


CATTLE. 


iir 


40 


118  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

Mr.  Parkinson,  in  his  invaluable  Treatise  on  Live  Stock,  gi/es  the 
weight  of  some  specimens  of  six  years'  old  cattle,  which  weighed  some 
eight  hundred  pounds,  but  the  cows  much  less.  He  says  of  them  : 
"On  the  whole,  they  must  be  allowed  to  be  good  cattle  for  the:r  soils, 
and  particularly  where  oxen  are  worked  at  the  plow.  When  slaugh- 
tered, they  are  a  sort  of  beef  that  suits  the  consumption  of  many  cus 
tomers." 

Amono-  the  most  successful  breeders  of  Devonshire  cattle  may  be 
mentioned  Mr.  Turner,  of  Barton,  near  Exeter,  Mr.  Quartly  of  Motland, 
(who  is  the  most  distinguished  winner,)  Mr.  Merson  of  Brinsworthy,  and 
Mr.  Davy  of  Moulton. 

Galloway  Bre.'tl. — The  Galloways  are  prominent  fat-producing  animals 
of  Scotland,  and  are  bred  in  great  numbers  in  Galloway  and  Dumfries- 
shire. They  are  hornless,  mostly  black,  are  small  in  size,  compact, 
short-legged,  hardy,  have  thick  mossy  coats,  and  are  good  feeders.  As 
milkers  tliey  are  very  indifferent,  although,  like  all  small  milkers,  the 
quality  is  rich.  They  are  mostly  driven  south  and  fed  otf  on  the  good 
pastures  in  England,  and  like  the  Highlanders,  bring  the  highest  price 
in  the  London  markets.  The  joints  are  of  a  good  size  for  family  roasts, 
and  the  meat  is  of  the  best  description ;  thus  making  it  the  mo^t  desir- 
able. 

The  Angus  Breed. — We  shall  close  our  remarks  on  the  fat-producing 
class  of  oxen  by  shortly  describing  a  hornless  or  polled  race  of  animals — 
the  Angus  "Doddies,"  as  they  are  called.  Being  bad  milkers,  they  are 
generally  used  for  grazing,  and  very  much  fatted  in  their  native  coun- 
try ;  they  are  also  preferred  for  feeding  by  the  graziers  of  Leicester- 
shire and  Norfolk.  Their  color  is  generally  black,  but  occasionally 
red;  the  head  fine;  the  breast  deep;  the  back  not  quite  straight,  being 
a  little  depressed  at  the  loin  and  somewhat  narrow ;  the  eye  full  and 
clear;  the  touch  generally  good,  and  the  hair  thick  and  curly.  The 
tendency  of  the  flesh,  as  in  all  the  hardy  Scottish  cattle,  is  to  form  on 
the  back ;  but  they  will  weigh  from  a  thousand  to  fourteen  hundred 
pounds. 

Qualities  are  so  co-existent  with  conformation  that,  as  a  general 
rule,  it  may  be  received  as  an  axiom.  And  as  dairy  and  butcher 
qualities  are  generally  combined  only  to  a  very  limited  extent,  and 
as  both  qualities  are  rarely  high  in  the  same  breed,  it  becomes  the 
agriculturist  to  make  his  selection  according  to  the  object  he  has  in 
view. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  CATTLE-BREEDING.— We  may  offer  a  few  re- 
marks on  the  principles  by  which  the  breeder  ought  to  be  guided  in  the 
successful  management  or  improvement  of  his  stock,  in  whatever  points 
he  wishes  it  to  excel,  whether  in  those  required  by  the  grazier  or  the 
dairy-farmer.  Every  man,  whether  grazier  or  dairy-farmer,  is  desirous 
of  turning  his  cattle  to  the  most  advantage  ;  nor  can  this  be  done,  un- 
less the  size  of  the  farm,  soil,  climate,  the  produce,  and  the  nature  and 
extent  of  the  pasturage,  be  well  considered  ;  for  the  cattle  that  the 
farm  is  best  adapted  for  maintaining  will  be  the  most  profitable.  It  is, 
however,  essential,  whatever  the  cattle  be,  whether  for  the  purpose  of 
the  dairy,  or  for  the  immediate  supply  of  the  markets  with  their  flesh, 


CATTLE. 


119 


120  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

that  they  be  well  bred,  and  excellent  of  their  kind.  To  the  dairy  far- 
mer, the  most  important  points  are,  the  quantity  of  milk  yielded,  its 
quality,  its  value  for  the  production  of  butter,  or  of  cheese,  a  freedom  in 
the  cows  from  vicious  habits  and  ill  temper,  their  character  as  good  and 
he.aUhy  breeders,  the  ease  with  which,  when  useless  as  milkers,  they 
become  fattened  for  the  market,  and  the  nature  and  quantity  of  food 
requisite  for  this  purpose.  To  the  grazier,  the  quickness  of  becoming 
fat,  and  at  as  little  expense  as  possible,  the  fineness  of  the  grain  of  the 
meat,  or  of  the  muscular  fibers,  the  mode  of  laying  on  the  fat,  the  small- 
ness  of  bone,  soundness  of  constitution,  and  congeniality  with  the  soil 
and  the  climate,  are  the  chief  points  which  he  takes  into  consideration. 
If  he  is  wise,  he  will  never  stint  keep,  nor  transfer  his  stock  from  a  good 
to  an  indifferent  soil;  and  this  is  true  also  with  respect  to  the  dairy-farmer. 
Contour,  or  beauty  of  form,  is  desirable  ;  indeed,  it  is  more  or  less 
connected  with  what  may  be  termed  utility  of  form,  that  is,  a  prepon- 
derance of  those  parts  in  the  beast  which  are  most  delicate  for  the  table, 
and  bear  the  highest  price,  over  the  parts  of  inferior  quality,  or  offal. 
This  is  connected  with  smallness  of  bone,  but  not  a  preternatural  small- 
ness,  and  with  a  tendency  to  depositions  of  fat,  which,  however,  should 
not  be  carried  to  an  extreme,  otherwise  the  quantity  of  flesh  is  dispropor- 
tionate, and  its  fiber  is  dry  and  insipid  ;  nor  is  the  weight  of  the  beast  pro- 
portionate to  its  admeasurement.  Previously  to  the  time  of  Mr.  Bake- 
well,*  the  cattle  in  general  were  large,  long-bodied,  big-boned,  flat-sided, 
slow  to  fatten,  great  consumers  of  food,  and  often  black,  or  foul-fleshed, 
or,  as  it  is  called  in  Yorkshire,  "  lyery."  This  truly  patriotic  breeder, 
acting  npon  true  principles,  energetically  set  to  work  upon  the  improve- 
ment of  cattle,  and  in  defiance  of  opposition  and  a  thousand  difficulties, 
lived  to  see  the  success  of  his  long-continued  efforts.  Experience  and  a 
close  and  acute  observation  had  taught  him  that  "like  produces  like ;" 
in  other  words,  that  the  qualities  of  the  parents,  such  as  beauty,  or 
utility  of  form,  disposition  to  fatness,  goodness  of  flesh,  abundance  of 
milk,  and  even  temper,  were  inherited  by  their  offspring;  and  that  by 
careful  selections  on  the  side  both  of  the  sire  and  dam,  a  breed  might 
be  ultimately  established  to  which  the  title  hlood  could  be  distinctly 
applied.  This,  of  course  supposes  a  primary  selection,  then  a  selection 
of  such  of  the  offspring  as  exhibited  the  properiies  which  constituted 
their  perfection,  in  the  highest  degree;  and  again  of  the  offspring  of 
these,  and  so  on  progressively.f  At  first  Mr.  Bakewell  was  necessitated 
to  breed  in  and  in,  but  as  his  stock  increased,  he  was  enabled  to  inter- 
pose more  or  less  remote  removes  between  the  members  of  the  same 
family;  and  ultimately  he  established  the  Dishley,  or  New  Leicester 
long-horns,  a  breed  remarkable  for  smallness  of  bone,  roundness  of 
form,  aptitude  to  fatten  upon  a  moderate  allowance,  and  fineness  of  flesh. 


*  Bom  at  Dishley,  in  Leicestershire,  1725.  His  father  and  grandfather  resided  on 
tl.'"  estate  before  him. 

f  ivj.  Bates'  rule  was,  "  Breed  in  and  in  froma  oaa  stocK,  and  you  commit  ruin  and 
devastation  •  hut  if  a  good  stock  he  selected,  you  may  breed  in  and  in  as  much  as  you 
please ;"  and  lie  followed  this  practice  for  tifty  years,  and  yet  had  one  of  the  £nest 
herds  ever  known. 


CATTLE.  121 

But  while  he  accomplished  this,  rendering  the  animals  admirably  suited 
for  the  grazier,  it  was  found  that  their  qualities  as  milkers  were  much 
deteriorated  ;  the  dairy -farmers  consequently  retained  their  old  breed, 
noted  for  the  richness,  though  perhaps  not  the  great  abundance  of 
the  milk.  We  are  not  here  speaking  about  the  differences  or  the  dis- 
tinguished excellences  of  the  various  breeds  of  cattle,  but  of  the  prin- 
ciples upon  which  excellences,  it  matters  not  of  what  sort,  may  be 
obtained.  "Like  produces  like,"  and  both  parents  must  present  the 
same  excellencies,  the  same  characteristics.  It  was  by  following  out 
these  rules  that  Mr.  Bakewell  arrived  at  perfection  in  his  breed;  indeed 
by  some  he  is  thought  to  have  pushed  his  principles  too  far,  and  the  fol- 
lowing remarks  have  perhaps  some  justice  in  them  : — "  It  was  his  grand 
maxim,  that  the  bones  of  an  animal  intended  for  food  could  not  be  too 
small ;  and  that  the  fat,  being  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  carcass, 
could  not,  consequently  be  too  abundant.  In  pursuance  of  this  leading 
theory,  by  inducing  a  preternatural  smallness  of  bone  and  rotundity  of 
carcass,  he  sought  to  cover  the  bones  of  all  his  animals  externally  with 
masses  of  fiit.  Thus  the  entirely  new  Leicester  breed,  from  their  exces- 
sive tendency  to  fatten,  produce  too  small  a  quantity  of  eatable  meat, 
and  that,  too,  necessarily  of  inferior  flavor  and  quality.  They  are,  in 
general,  found  defective  in  weight,  proportionally  to  their  bulk;  and  if 
not  thoroughly  fattened,  their  flesh  is  crude  and  without  flavor  ;  while,  if 
they  be  so,  their  carcasses  produce  little  else  but  fat,  a  very  considerable 
part  of  which  must  be  sold  at  an  inferior  price,  to  make  candles  instead 
of  food  ;  not  to  forget  the  very  great  waste  that  must  ever  attend  the 
consumption  of  over-fattened  meat. 

"  This  great  and  sagacious  improver  (Mr.  Bakewell),  very  justly  dis- 
gusted at  the  sight  of  those  huge,  gaunt,  leggy,  and  misshapen  animals 
with  which  his  vicinity  abounded,  and  which  scarcely  any  length  of 
time,  or  quantity  of  food,  would  thoroughly  fatten,  patriotically  deter- 
mined upon  raising  a  more  sightly  and  profitable  breed  ;  yet,  rather  un- 
fortunately, his  zeal  impelled  him  to  the  opposite  extreme.  Having 
painfully,  and  at  much  cost,  raised  a  variety  of  cattle,  the  chief  merit  of 
which  is  to  make  fat,  he  has  apparently  laid  his  di-ciples  and  successors 
under  the  necessity  of  substituting  another  that  will  make  lean." — 
lUustraf'.ons  of  Natural  History,  p.  5. 

Granting  the  truth  of  these  strictures,  which  we  scarcely  can  to  the 
full  extent,  what  is  the  inference  as  it  respects  the  system  of  breeding? 
Namely,  this  :  that  by  pursuing  the  proper  mode,  by  proper  selections, 
and  by  joining  like  excellencies  and  properties  in  the  sire  and  dam,  and 
not  by  rashly  crossing  distinct  breeds,  but  by  making  one  breed  the 
great  foundation,  and  working  upon  it,  remembering  that  "like  pro- 
duces like,"  not  only  will  the  point  aimed  at  be  attained,  but  it  may 
even  be  overshot,  thus  demonstrating  the  power  which  the  judicious 
breeder  possesses. 

Since  Mr.  Bakewell's  time  the  New  Leicester  breed  has  become  de- 
generated ;  by  some  the  stock  has  been  bred  in  and  in  too  closely,  and 
by  others  very  injudiciously  crossed.  In  the  mean  time  the  short-horned 
breeds  of  cattle  have  been  gaining  an  ascendancy,  so  that  few  really 
excellent  long-horns  are  now  to  be  seen.  This,  however,  has  nothing 
6 


i2'2  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

to  do  witli  the  great  principles  we  have  endeavored  to  ilhistrate;  they 
apply  alike  to  all  breeds  of  cattle.  Every  breeder,  then,  should  well 
consider  the  properties  of  the  stock  from  which  he  breeds,  investigate 
their  good  qualities  and  their  bad  qualities,  and  while  he  endeavors  to 
keep  up  or  improve  the  former,  he  should  study  to  remove  the  latter. 
His  selection  must  be  strict;  the  heifer  or  cow  should  have  as  few  of 
the  bad  points  as  possible,  every  excellence  in  perfection,  and  be  in  good 
licalth  ;  the  bull  should  be  of  the  same  kind,  and  if  related,  only  in  a 
remote  degree ;  nor  should  he  have  been  brought  up  on  a  pasturage 
ditfering  from  that  of  the  cow,  or  under  the  influences  of  a  ditferent  local 
climate  ;  he  should  not  only  possess  the  good  points  desired,  in  all  their 
perfection,  but  he  should  also  have  the  points  which  the  farmer  con- 
siders to  be  the  excellences  of  his  own  stock,  as  admirably  developed. 
Thus  acting  with  judgment  he  may  expect  improvement;  and  if  he  fail, 
there  is  some  concealed  fault  which  has  been  overlooked,  either  on  the 
one  side  or  the  other,  or  some  defect  in  their  parents,  and  which  (in 
accordance  with  the  tendency  there  is  in  families  to  exhibit,  from  time 
to  time,  certain  peculiarities,  latent  perhaps  for  a  generation)  has  again 
made  itself  manifest ;  consequently,  on  both  sides  there  ought  to  be 
what  is  termed  "  good  hloodP  But  this  is  to  suppose  a  stock  already 
improved  to  a  great  extent ;  and  here  we  may  repeat  the  injunctions 
laid  down  by  the  Rev.  H.  Berry,  which  more  particularly  apply  to  the 
farmer  commencing  de  novo:  "A  person  selecting  a  stock  from  which 
to  breed,  notwithstanding  he  has  set  up  for  himself  a  standard  of  per- 
fection, will  obtain  them  with  qualifications  of  different  descriptions,  and 
in  difl'erent  degrees.  In  breeding  from  such  he  will  exercise  his  judg- 
ment, and  decide  what  are  indispensable  or  desirable  qualities,  and  will 
cross  with  animals  with  a  view  to  establish  them.  His  proceeding  will 
be  of  the  ''give  and  take  kind^  He  will  submit  to  the  introduction  of  a 
trifling  defect,  in  order  that  he  may  profit  by  a  great  excellence  ;  and 
between  excellences  perhaps  somewhat  incompatible,  he  will  decide  on 
which  is  the  greatest,  and  give  it  the  preference.* 

"To  a  person  commencing  improv^ement,  the  best  advice  is  to  get  as 
good  a  bull  as  he  can,  and  if  he  be  a  good  one  of  his  kind,  to  use  him 
indiscriminately  with  all  his  cows;  and  when  by  this  proceeding,  which 
ought  to  be  persisted  in,  his  stock  has,  with  an  occasional  change  of 
bull,  become  sufliiciently  stamped  with  desirable  excellences,  his  selection 
of  males  should  tjien  be  made  to  eradicate  defects  which  he  thinks  de- 
sirable to  be  got  rid  of. 

"He  will  not  fail  to  keep  in  view  the  necessity  of  good  blood  in  the 
bulls  resorted  to,  for  that  will  give  the  only  assurance  that  they  will 

*  "A  person  would  often  be  puzzled;  he  would  find  different  individuals  possess- 
ino:  difTereut  perf(>ctions  in  diirerent  deorrees: — one,  good  tiesh  and  a  tendency  to 
fatten,  with  a  bad  form:  another,  with  fine  form,  but  bad  flesh,  and  little  dispositicm 
to  acquire  fat.  What  rule  should  he  lay  down,  by  the  observance  of  whieh  good 
might  be  generally  produced,  and  as  little  evil  as  possible  eftected?  Utiuty.  The 
truly  good  form  is  that  which  secures  constitution,  health,  and  vigor:  a  disposition 
to  lay  on  flesh  with  the  greatest  possible  reduction  of  oftal.  Having  obtained  this, 
other  things  are  of  minor,  tliougli  perhaps  sometimes  of  considerable  importance." 
— PrizeEssay,  by  the  Rev.  H.  Berry, 


CATTLE.  123 

transmit  their  own  valuable  properties  to  their  offspring;  but  he  must 
not  trust  to  this  alone,  or  lie  \vill  soon  run  the  risk  of  degeneracy.  In 
animals  evincing  an  extraordinary  degree  of  perfection,  where  the  con- 
stitution is  decidedly  good,  and  there  is  no  prominent  defect,  a  little 
close  breeding  may  be  allowed ;  but  this  must  not  be  injudiciously 
adopted,  or  carried  too  far;  for,  although  it  may  increase  and  confirm 
valuable  properties,  it  will  also  increase  and  confirm  defects ;  and  no 
breeder  need  be  long  in  discovering  that,  in  an  improved  state,  animals 
have  a  greater  tendency  to  defect  than  to  perfection.  Close  breeding 
from  affinities  impairs  the  constitution  and  affects  the  procreative 
powers,  and  therefore  a  strong  cross  is  occasionally  necessary." 

The  dairy-farmer,  however,  is  less  concerned  in  this  high  breeding 
than  the  grazier;  yet  he  is  not  by  any  means  indifferent  in  the  matter; 
for  his  aim  ought  to  be,  to  obtain  a  breed  no  less  valuable  as  milkers 
than  for  their  disposition  to  fatten  when  the  milk  is  dried.  These  two 
qualifications  are  not  to  be  attained  very  easily;  yet  they  may  be,  and, 
indeed,  have  been  attained,  and  especially  among  the  improved  short- 
horn breeds,  as  those  of  Durham  and  Yorkshire,  or  the  cross-breeds 
between  the  old  Shropshire,  and  the  Ilolderness.  The  breeds  most 
valued  in  the  great  dairies  around  the  metropolis  are  mixed  between 
the  Yorkshire,  Holderness,  and  Durham.  For  quality  and  quantity  of 
milk  they  are  eminent;  they  yield,  on  the  average,  each  cow,  two  gal- 
lons of  milk  at  a  time,  and  often  nine  quarts  ;  and  when  dry,  they  are 
in  general  readily  fattened  for  the  butcher. 

With  respect  to  the  points  of  symmetry  in  cattle,  of  which  the  vari- 
ous breeds  exhibit  several  degrees  of  modification,  there  are  certain 
rules  which  are  generally  acknowledged  as  applicable  to  good  cattle  of 
all  kinds. 

The  Bull. — The  forehead  of  the  bull  should  be  broad  and  short,  the 
lower  part,  that  is,  the  nasal  part  and  jaws,  tapering;  and  the  muzzle 
fine;  the  ears  moderate;  the  neck  gently  arched  from  the  head  to  the 
shoulders,  small  and  fine  where  it  joins  the  head,  but  boldly  thickening 
as  it  sweeps  down  to  the  chest,  which  should  be  deep,  almost  to  a  level 
with  the  knees,  with  the  briskets  well  developed.  The  shoulders  should 
be  well  set,  the  shoulder-blades  oblique,  with  the  humeral  joint  advanc- 
ing forward  to  the  neck.  The  barrel  of  the  chest  should  be  round, 
without  hollowness  between  it  and  the  shoulders.  The  sides  should  be 
ribbed  home,  with  little  space  between  them  and  the  hips  ;  the  whole 
body  being  barrel-shaped,  and  not  flat-sided.  The  belly  should  not 
hang  down,  being  well  supported  by  the  oblique  abdominal  muscles, 
and  the  flanks  should  be  round  and  deep.  The  hips  should  be  wide 
and  round,  the  loins  broad,  and  the  back  straight  and  flat.  The  tail 
should  be  broad  and  well-haired,  and  set  on  high,  and  fall  abruptly. 
The  breast  should  be  broad;  the  forearms  short  and  muscular,  tapering 
to  the  knee  ;  the  legs  straight,  clean,  and  fine-boned.  The  thighs 
should  be  full  and  long,  and  close  together  when  viewed  from  behind. 
The  hide  should  be  moderately  thin,  with  a  mellow  feel,  and  movable, 
but  not  lax;  and  it  should  be  well  covered  with  fine  soft  hair.  The 
nostrils  should  be  large  and  open;  the  eyes  animated  and  prominent ; 
the  horns  clean  and  white. 


124  DOMi:STlC    ANIMALS. 

The  Ox. — In  the  ox,  the  masculine  characters,  so  prominent  in  the 
bull,  are  softened  ;  the  neck  is  carried  nef^rly  straight  from  the  top  of 
the  shoulders,  without  an  arch;  and  the  general  frame  is  lighter,  but 
the  points  of  excellence  are  the  same. 

The  Cow. — Cows  of  a  coarse,  angular,  gaunt  figure  may  give  good 
milk,  and  that  in  abundance,  as,  indeed,  was  the  case  with  some  of  the 
old  unimproved  breeds  ;  but  it  is  desirable,  and  moreover  it  is  possible,  to 
unite  qualities  as  a  milker  with  such  an  aptitude  to  fatten  as  will  render 
her  valuable  when  dry,  and  profitable  to  the  butcher.  In  a  cow  thus 
constituted,  the  head  must  be  long,  rather  small  and  fine  ;  the  neck 
thin  and  delicate  at  its  junction  with  the  head,  but  thickening  as  it  ap- 
proaches the  shoulder  and  descends  to  the  chest ;  the  breast  should  be 
at  least  moderately  broad  and  prominent,  with  a  small  dewlap  ;  the 
chine  should  be  full  and  fleshy;  the  ribs  w^ell  arched,  and  the  chest  bar- 
relled; the  back  straight,  the  shoulders  fine,  the  loins  wide,  the  hips 
well  formed  and  rounded,  the  rump  long;  the  udder  should  be  moder- 
ate, with  a  fine  skin,  and  of  equal  size  both  before  and  behind ;  the 
teats  should  not  be  too  large  or  lax,  and  they  should  be  equi-distant  from 
each  other.  If  the  vascular  system  be  well  developed,  the  milk-vein, 
as  it  is  termed,  is  generally  la^ge;  and  though  this  vein  is  not  connect- 
ed with  the  udder,  but  carries  the  blood  from  the  foreparts  to  the  in- 
guinal vein,  still  it  has  been  taken,  and  with  some  justice,  as  the  criterion 
of  a  good  milker.  The  eyes  should  be  clear,  calm,  and  tranquil,  indica- 
tive of  a  gentle  temper ;  the  skin  thin,  but  mellow  ;  and  the  hair  soft. 
Cows  thus  admirably  formed  will  often  yield  from  twenty  to  twenty-four 
quarts  of  milk  daily,  and  some,  in  the  springtime,  in  good  pasturage, 
even  thirty,  or  more.  The  milk  may,  perhaps,  yield  less  butter  in  pro- 
portion than  that  of  some  other  breeds  of  cattle  ;  but  it  would  appear 
that,  as  the  cow  advances  in  age  to  her  sixth  and  seventh  year  the  milk 
becomes  richer ;  and  it  is  well  known  that  the  extensive  dairymen  of 
London  prefer  a  cow  which  has  had  a  third  or  fourth  calf,  and  is  five 
or  six  years  old,  to  a  younger  animal. 

We  are  perfectly  aware  that  Mr.  Culley  ("Observations  on  Live 
Stock,")  considers  it  as  an  impossibility  to  unite  good  milkers  with  good 
feeders;  for,  he  says,  whenever  wq  attempt  both,  we  are  sure  to  get 
neither  in  perfection: — "In  proportion  as  we  gain  the  one,  in  the  same 
proportion  we  lose  the  other;  the  more  milk,  the  less  beef;  and  the 
more  we  pursue  beef,  the  less  milk  w^e  get.  In  truth,  they  seem  to  be 
two  diff'erent  varieties  of  the  same  kind,  for  very  different  uses ;  and  if 
so,  they  ought  most  certainly  to  be  differently  pursued  by  those  who 
employ  them.  If  the  dairyman  wants  milk,  let  him  pursue  the  milking 
tribe;  let  him  have  both  bull  and  cows  of  the  best  and  greatest  milking 
family  he  can  find  ;  on  the  contrary,  he  that  wants  feeding  or  grazing 
cattle,  let  him  procure  a  bull  and  cows  of  that  sort  which  feed  the 
quickest,  wherever  they  are  to  be  found.  By  pursuing  too  many  ob- 
jects at  once,  we  are  apt  to  lose  sight  of  the  principle  ;  and,  by  aiming 
at  too  much,  we  often  lose  all.  Let  us  only  keep  to  distinct  sorts,  and 
we  shall  obtain  the  prize  in  due  time.  I  apprehend  it  has  been  much 
owing  to  the  mixing  of  breeds  and  improper  crossings  that  has  kept  us 
so  long  from  distinguishing  the   most  valuable  kinds."     Mr.  Culley 


CATTLE.  125 

wrote  in  1807,  and  since  liis  day  many  improvements  have  taken  place 
in  the  breeds  of  cattle;  and-  experience  has  proved,  that  the  improved 
Yorkshire  cow,  in  which  the  characters  of  the  Durham  and  Holderness 
are  minoled,  unites  the  two  qualities  in  high  perfection. 

Reproduction,  Rearing  and  Fattening.— The  heifer  ought  not  to  be 

permitted  to  breed  until  over  two  years  old;  the  reason  is  obvious, 
llcr  own  system  before  this  period  is  not  sufficiently  matured  for  the 
tax  upon  it — a  tax  wliich  will  be  paid  not  only  by  the  dam,  but  also  by 
her  progeny,  for  both  will  suffer  from  a  deficiency  in  nutriment,  the 
whole  of  which  is  necessary  for  the  growth  of  the  former,  which  during 
the  second  year  is  rapid.  If  the  bull  be  kept  separate  from  the  herd  of 
cows,  the  farmer  may  regulate  the  succession  of  calves  almost  at  pleas- 
ure, so  as  to  suit  his  pasture  or  his  arrangements.  The  best  time  as  it 
respects  the  mother,  the  calf,  and  the  free  supply  of  milk,  is  when  the 
spring  grass  is  beginning  to  shoot  luxuriantly,  atfording  a  good  and 
sufficient  store  of  nutriment.  It  is  true  that  veal  and  butter  yield  a 
better  profit  at  an  earlier  period,  but  the  breeder  must  judge  in  points 
of  this  nature  from  circumstances.  The  period  of  gestation  in  the  cow 
is  generally  stated  as  nine  calendar  months,  or  270  days;  but  there  is 
often  considerable  variation  of  time.  M.  Tessier  observes  (in  a  memoir 
read  to  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences  in  Paris),  that  the  shortest 
period,  as  far  as  his  opportunities  of  observation  enabled  him  to  ascertain, 
was  240  days,  the  longest  321  ;  the  difference  being  eighty-one  days.* 
This  range  of  time  is  very  extraordinary,  and  appears  to  depend  on  the 
care  paid  to  the  animal,  and  on  its  state  of  health  ;  by  which  the 
development  of  the  calf  is  intiuenced  through  the  sanguiferous  system  of 
the  mother.  With  respect  to  the  bull,  he  does  not  attain  to  a  due  degree 
of  strength  till  two  years  old,  and  is  in  higher  vigor  at  three ;  but  how 
long  the  breeder  may  keep  him  after  that  age  must  depend  upon  his 
own  judgment,  and  a  variety  of  circumstances.  The  cow  seldom  pro- 
duces more  than  a  single  calf,  sometimes,  however,  twins,  and  very 
rarely  three.  In  the  case  of  twins,  if  they  be  respectively  male  and 
female,  the  female  is  generally,  but  not  always,  unproductive. 

It  is  sometimes  desirable  that  the  farmer  should  possess  the  power 
of  coutrolllnf/  the  ratio  of  the  sexes  in  the  animals  he  breeds.  The 
wonderful  ratio  in  which  they  are  produced  in  nature,  is  one  proof  of 
the  all-wise  provisions  of  the  Almighty  in  making  them  subject  to 
certain  laws.  Many  investigations  have  been  made  to  show  how  far  this 
is  within  the  control  of  man.  A  dairy-man  is  particularly  interested  in 
the  production  of  heifer  calves,  wdierewith  to  increase  his  dairy  stock  ; 
a  grazier  may  be  equally  desirous  of  producing  bullocks  for  large  weights 
and  summer  grazing;  while  a  breeder  for  sale  may  be  anxious  to  see  a 
goodly  proportion  of  bulls.  How  far  he  can  control  this  production  is 
a  question  of  interest  and  importance.  Ilofkener,  a  German,  made  some 
calculations  as  regards  the  human  species,  which  tended  to  show  that 
where  the  father  was  younger  than  the  mother,  the  proportion  of  male 

*  In  the  Bulletin  des  Sciences,  by  the  Soc.  Pliilomatique,  Paris,  I'rgY,  M.  Tessier 
says,  that  out  of  160  cows,  some  calved  in  241  days,  and  five  in  308  ;  giving  a 
latitude  of  67  days.— See  Sir  E.  Home's  Paper  on  Phil.  Trans.     Part  1,  for  1822. 


126  DOMESTIC   AyTMALS. 

births  to  females  was  90.6  per  cent. ;  when  of  equal  age,  90  per  cent. ; 
but  when  the  age  of  the  father  was  greater  than  the  mother,  nine  to 
eighteen  years,  it  was  143  per  cent. 

Similar  in  principle  was  the  experience  of  M.  C.  C.  de  Buzareurgnes, 
who  professed  to  have  the  power  of  controlling  the  sexes  in  sheep ;  his 
principle  being  the  same  as  the  above,  viz,  that  vigor  was  favorable  to 
female,  and  the  converse  to  male  births.  For  females  he  proposed  to 
select  young  rams,  and  place  them  in  a  good  pasture;  for  males,  thi-ee 
to  five  shear  animals,  and  to  place  them  in  an  inferior  pasture.  His 
experiment  was  successful.  In  his  female  trial  there  were  seventy-six 
female  lambs  produced  against  thirty-five  males  ;  and,  in  his  male  trial, 
there  were  produced  eighty  males  against  fifty-five  females.  Another 
trial  was  made  by  M.  Cournuejouls.  One  section  was  put  to  young  male 
lambs,  and  on  a  good  pasture  ;  the  other  on  a  poorer  pasture,  and  with 
old  rams.  The  result  was,  that  in  the  first  experiment  there  were  fifteen 
males  and  twenty-five  females,  and,  in  the  second,  there  were  twenty-six 
males  and  fourteen  females. 

Buzareurgnes  also  showed  that  in  several  lots  the  approximations 
to  male  or  female  births,  were  also  in  the  ratio  of  the  ages  of  the 
animals  on  both  sides.  Thus,  of  the  young  ewes  put  to  the  young  rams, 
the  two-year  old  ewes  produced  fourteen  males  and  twenty-six  females, 
the  three-year  old  gave  sixteen  males  and  twenty-nine  females  ;  whereas 
the  four-year  old  ewes,  to  the  aged  rams,  and  on  the  poor  pasture,  pro- 
duced thirty-three  males  and  fourteen  females. 

More  than  this  is  not  known  ;  but  there  is  quite  sufficient  to  indicate 
that  the  breeder  possesses  at  least  considerable  power  in  controlling  the 
proportion  of  the  sexes,  and  that  the  more  vigor  he  has  of  frame  and 
food,  the  greater  will  be  the  proportion  of  females ;  and  that  the  con- 
verse of  this  will  hold  equally  good.  There  is  enough  in  the  principle  to 
deserve  a  trial. 

We  now  proceed  wnth  details  descriptive  of  the  management  of  ca'tle, 
under  the  heads  of  rearing  and  fattening.  The  first  object  being  to 
secure  a  suitable  breeding  stock,  and  a  provision  for  proper  buildings  for 
their  accommodation  and  shelter. 

Rearing. — It  is  most  advantageous  to  have  the  calves  drop  in  the  early 
part  of  the  year,  that  the  young  grass  may  be  ready  for  them  about  the 
time  of  weaning.  New  milk  is  best  for  the  young  calf  for  the  first 
fortnight,  when  it  may  be  trained  to  feed  upon  other  food,  such  as  lin- 
seed-cake, or  sweet  hay  ;  and  when  it  will  eat  these  freely,  its  allowance 
of  milk  niay  be  gradually  reduced,  and  sliced  Swedes  or  carrots  added 
to  its  food.  The  cribs  should  be  kept  clean,  the  food  regularly  supplied, 
and  the  calves  themselves  should  always  receive  kind  and  gentle  treat- 
ment. J  Perseverance  in  such  management  will  greatly  aid  the  growth 
of  the  young  animals;  when  kindly  treated,  there  will  be  no  restless 
excitement  on  the  appi'oach  of  strangers,  and  they  are  easily  managed 
when  surgical  operations  become  necessary  from  disease  or  accident. 
All  graziers  are  fully  alive  to  the  importance  of  docility  in  all  fatting 
animals. 

After  three  or  four  weeks  the  male  calves  maybe  castrated,  an  opera- 
tion attended  with  less  risk  and  pain  when  done  at  an  early  age.     It  is 


CATTLE.  127 

ad\  isaMe  to  keep  the  calves  in  separate  cribs  until  five  or  six  weeks  old, 
after  which  they  may  be  turned  tog-ether  into  a  comfortable  hou?e,  with 
sufiicient  room  for  exercise.  And  when  the  pasturage  permits,  and  fine 
weather  is  well  established,  they  may  be  turned  out,  at  first  for  a  few 
liours  oidy  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  to  inure  them  to  the  chano-e.  As 
winter  approaches,  they  mast  again  have  the  shelter  of  a  con)fortable 
yard  and  be  supplied  with  roots  mixed  with  straw-chaff.  An  addition  of 
one  pound  of  oil-cake  in  summer,  and  two  pounds  to  their  ordinary  food 
durino-  winter,  will  greatly  assist  their  condition  and  early  maturity. 
The  yards  should,  of  course,  be  well  sheltered  and  littered,  and  cattle 
of  the  same  age  and  size  have  separate  inclosures,  otherwise  the  weaker 
beasts  will  be  driven  about  by  the  master  ones.  In  the  spring  the  young 
cattle  are  again  turned  to  grass,  and  the  treatment  continues  in  a  similar 
manner  until  the  cattle  are  fattened  off  at  home,  or  are  sold  off  for  that 
purpose  into  other  districts.  By  liberal  feeding  whilst  in  a  young  state, 
the  cattle  are  kept  in  good  condition  and  rapid  growth. 

We  believe  that  food  for  calves  may  be  prepared  of  a  much  more 
nutritious  nature,  and  much  more  likely  to  be  of  advantage  to  the  produ- 
cers; some  of  these,  on  which  we  have  successfully  reared  calves  for 
several  years,  we  shall  phice  before  the  reader  : — 

1.  Wlieatmeal  Porridge. — This  is  made  in  the  following  manner: 
boil  two  gallons  of  water,  and  mix  a  pint  of  fine  flour  with  cold  water, 
sufiicient  to  make  it  into  the  consistency  of  a  thick  cream.  This  should 
be  thoroughly  mixed,  and  put  into  a  bowl  capable  of  holding  half  a 
gallon;  a  small  quantity  of  the  hot  water  is  added  to  the  mixture,  and 
stirred  so  as  gradually  to  raise  the  temperature  of  the  flour  and  water 
in  the  bowl,  and  prevent  it  from  runuing  into  lumps.  This  is  plunged 
into  boiling  water,  and  stirred  until  the  whole  boils  again.  This  co- 
agulates the  mass,  and  forms  a  thick  nutritious  pbn-idge.  It  is  a  great 
improvement  to  the  mixture  if  one-sixth  part  of  old  skimmed  milk  is 
mixed  with  it ;  which  not  only  gets  scalded  itself,  but  very  materially 
improves  it.    Two  gallons  of  the  mixture  per  day  will  be  found  sufficient. 

2.  LillS?ed  Jelly  combined  with  the  milk,  is  a  very  valuable  auxiliary. 
We  ourselves  have  scarcely  tried  the  seed  by  itself  sufficiently  to  be  able 
to  give  a  very  decided  opinion  upon  it ;  and  we  much  prefer  the  pressed 
seed,  in  the  shape  of  cake,  crushed  to  a  powder  ;  and,  for  this  reason, 
if  we  wanted  to  lay  on  the  fat,  we  should  give  them  the  crushed  seed, 
because  its  fatty  matter  would,  when  cooked,  be  easily  assimilated  into 
animal  fat ;  but  when  bone  and  muscle  are  to  be  formed,  ever}"  pound 
of  fattening  matter  in  the  food  displaces  other  substances  calculated 
to  build  up  the  animal  structure  ;  for  this  reason  we  most  approve  of 
the  jelly  produced  by  the  crashed  cake.  The  proportions  of  the  crushed 
cake  to  the  water  should  be  as  follows:^ — to  two  gallons  of  water  take 
two  pounds  of  oil-cake  bruised  or  crushed  nearly  to  a  powder,  sprinkle 
it  in  the  water,  stir,  and  allow  it  to  boil  ten  minutes.  Cool  w^ith  skim- 
milk,  if  convenient.  A  rich  jelly-like  mass,  of  the  most  nourishing  kind, 
is  produced,  which  should  be  given  in  a  lukewarm  state. 

3.  Broth  Porrulge. — This  is  a  somewhat  unnatural  mixture  ;  but  it  is 
often  used  very  successfully,  combined  with  other  mixtures,  for  feeding 
calves.    The  water  in  which  bacon  has  been  boiled  is  carefully  preserved, 


128  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

and  diluted  witli  pcrliaps  one-half  of  its  quantity  in  water.  It  may  be 
expected  that  a  substance  like  bacon,  from  which  nitrogenized  and 
phosphoric  matter  may  be  expected  to  be  dissolved  by  the  action  of 
boiling,  will  be  of  use  ;  but,  to  make  it  alimentary,  it  is  necessary  to  mix 
it  with  a  considerable  proportion  of  mJlk.  However  unnatural  this 
mixture  may  appear;  how  contrary  soever  to  all  theories  of  natural 
history  it  may  be  to  give  carnivorous  matter  to  herbivorous  animals,  we 
may  find  in  it  an  analogy  by  no  means  unimportant,  in  the  disposition 
evinced  by  mature  animals  of  this  description  to  select  and  chew,  for 
hours  together,  a  piece  of  bone,  which  they  will  search  for  with  instinctive 
pertinacity,  and  relinquish  with  reluctance.  Is  it  not  because  she  finds 
in  it  the  nitrogen  or  the  phosphates  denied  her  in  the  food  upon  which 
she  is  confined  ?  And  if  this  be  so — if  she  is  guided  by  her  instinct  to 
select  and  choose  animal  matter,  why  may  not  a  decoction  of  animal 
substance  be  useful  to  the  calves,  in  their  younger  stages,  as  an  auxiliary, 
and,  to  a  certain  extent,  a  substitute  for  the  beverage  which  nature  has 
given  them,  but  which  man  denies  them. 

Solid  Food  for  calves  will  soon,  however,  displace  much  of  the  liquid. 
At  five  or  six  weeks  old  they  ought  to  be  trained  to  eat  sliced  roots. 
To  do  this  it  is  only  necessary  to  supply  them  in  convenient  forms  in  a 
trough  within  their  reach.  Their  moments  of  leisure  will  be  employed 
in  playing  with  and  sucking  these  pieces,  until  they  begin  to  masticate 
them.  The  roots  should,  for  this  purpose,  be  cut  into  oblong  pieces,  ono 
inch  broad,  half  an  inch  deep,  and  two  inches  long;  these  shapes  are 
better  than  either  slices  or  squares,  being  more  adapted  to  their  conforma- 
tion, and  better  calculated  to  make  them  learn  to  eat  of  their  own 
accord.  Calves  should  be  reared  from  the  months  of  September  to 
March.  We  do  not  approve  of  late-bred  calves  ;  if  they  are  reared  late, 
they  become  tender  and  require  nursing  the  following  winter.  In  the 
months  we  have  named,  however,  turnips  are  always  plentiful ;  or,  if 
mangel-wurzel  is  cultivated,  it  will  be  found  a  very  successful  substitute; 
although  we  prefer  Swedes.  These  appear  not  only  to  agree  with  the 
palate  of  the  animal  and  to  make  it  thrive,  but  they  exercise  a  very 
beneficial  influence  on  its  subsequent  development.  Is  it  because  they 
contain  a  large  share  of  the  phosphates  ?  Sprengel  makes  the  relative 
proportions  of  the  phosphates  in  the  Swedes  to  be  nearly  six  times  as 
great  as  in  the  common  turnips,  and  sulphate  ten  times. 

Pbos.  acid.  Sulph  acid. 

Common  turnips 13 -^U    ner  1000  lbs. 

Swedes 408 890  [    P^^  ^^'""  ^^^ 

Other  auxiliaries  are  sometimes  adopted,  such  as  bean-meal,  pea-meal, 
oatmeal,  cattle  sago,  and  Indian  meal ;  all  these  being  very  material 
aids  in  rearing  calves. 

CATTLE-FEEDIi\G. — This  question  is  one  of  economy  simply:  how  can 
the  largest  number  of  jwunds  of  beef  be  produced  at  the  least  poasible 
cost?  This  is  the  real  question  still  unsettled,  and  on  this  we  will  pro- 
ceed to  show  the  present  extent  of  our  knowledge. 

First.  The  grazier  must  select  such  animals  as  will  lay  on  fat  rapidly; 
and,  by  a  physiological  law,  as  we  have  seen,  there  are  those  which  will 


CATTLE.  129 

soonest  attain  maturity  so  as  to  be  fit  for  feedino;.  We  stop  not  now  to 
examine  whether  or  not  the  two  principles  of  taking  on  fat  earlv  as  well 
as  rapidly  arc  necessarily  connected — though  it  is  very  probable  they 
are — and  that  a  tendency  to  lay  on  fjit  will  show  itself  at  a  very  early 
period  of  the  animal's  history;  though  it  may  possibly  be  a  mere  result 
of  the  breeder's  skill  to  obtain  the  tw^o  qualities  combined. 

Now,  every  good  grazier  knows  an  animal  which  will  thrive,  that  be- 
ing a  simple  matter  of  judgment.  A  skillful  man  will  select  out  of  a 
drove,  five,  or  ten,  or  twenty  animals,  and  nineteen  of  the  twenty  will 
be  the  best  grazers  for  his  particular  farm.  The  eye  guides  him  par- 
tially— the  signs  we  have  described  in  our  remarks  on  the  breeds  of  cat- 
tle also — but  more  than  all  he  is  directed  by  the  touch. 

Having  selected  the  animal,  the  mode  of  feeding  him  is  to  turn  him 
out  into  a  grass  field  skirting  a  river — if  such  be  within  the  grazier's 
power — where  alluvium  of  ages  has  been  washed  into  the  soil  so  deep 
that  the  roots  of  the  herbage  cannot  find  its  bottom,  and  so  firmly  com- 
minuted as  to  admit  of  the  minutest  filaments  of  the  radicles  of  the 
plants  to  penetrate  it  with  facility,  so  porous  as  to  admit  the  air  to 
enter,  and  the  water  to  filter  gently  through,  and  containing  its  elements 
in  a  state  of  solution  so  delicate  that  they  are  ready  for  food  to  the 
plants  which  consume  them  ;  but  last,  though  of  greater  importance 
than  all,  having  the  elements  of  vegetation  in  plentiful  abundance.  Now, 
all  men  know  that  on  such  a  soil,  in  fiv^e,  six,  or  even  in  four  months,  a 
lean  animal  will  become  fat.  He  has  all  he  requires — a  little  attention 
to  see  that  he  is  well  is  all  that  is  needed,  from  the  time  of  his  being 
placed  in  the  pasture  to  being  taken  out  to  the  butcher.  There  is 
neither  labor,  pains,  or  expense  incurred.  He  is  worth  twenty-five  dol- 
lars more  when  he  is  taken  out  than  when  he  was  put  in,  and  that  is  all 
the  grazier  knows  or  cares  for.  Now,  we  shall  find  out  the  requisites 
here  for  feeding,  strictly  laid  down.  There  is  plenty  ot  fresh  and  highly 
nutritive  food  ;  there  is  scarcely  any  labor  in  searching  for  and  obtain- 
ing it ;  with  water,  and  shelter,  and  warmth  ;  and  also  plenty  of  air,  and 
freedom  from  constraint. 

Now,  this  is  what  the  feeder  must  aim  at  in  his  winter-fed  cattle.  They 
cannot  feed  in  the  open  air;  the  cold  and  wet  would  deprive  him  of  the 
flesh  as  fast  as  the  food  laid  it  on.  Here  he  must  provide  shelter.  Now, 
one  of  the  controversies  of  cattle-feeding  in  winter  is,  which  is  the  best 
mode  of  providing  this.  The  Scotch  farmer  loudly  contends  for  full 
and  perfect  liberty  to  the  animal.  If  he  is  too  warm  he  w.ll  sweat,  and 
if  too  closely  confined  he  will  fret  and  murmur;  and  he  declares  that 
practi3e  has  decided  that  they  should  be  fatted  in  open  places;  a  shel- 
tered shed  they  may  have,  but  nothing  beyond  it.  The  midland  counties 
man  says  this  exposure  is  dreadful.  It  wastes  their  beef,  and  renders 
them  subject  to  disease,  and  involves  long  feeding.  Another  class  again 
insist  on  the  tying  up  of  the  animals  as  injurious  to  their  health ;  that 
a  little  exercise,  but  absolute  confinement,  are  equally  necessary ;  and 
that  they  should  have  shelter  "svith  freedom — these  two  classes  are  con- 
troverting the  merits, of  box  and  stall-feeding. 

And  both  of  them  are  right.  Take  a  Highland  Scot,  consider  his 
wild  habits,  his  long  stray  of  mountain  and  glen,  hi?  vvide-spread  pasture 
6* 


130  DOMESTIC   ANOIALS. 

of  peat  and  heather,  from  which  he  conld  in  his  native  fastness  smell 
afar  otf  his  friend  or  his  enemy  man !  Tie  him  by  the  head  and  he 
becomes  fretful  or  furious ;  he  will  pine,  and  fret,  and  worry  himself', 
wdiile,  in  his  gregarious  state,  with  a  herd  of  his  fellows  in  open  yards, 
or  sheds,  he  will  thrive.  Nay,  he  has  a  nature  which  will  lay  on  fat 
despite  the  cold  and  wet,  as  the  rye  among  plants  can  assimilate  food 
from  the  barrenest  soil ;  so  he  has  a  natural  shelter  in  his  hair  and 
constitution,  for  which  the  owner  of  more  delicate  and  tender  animals 
will  not  give  him  credit,  forgetting  that  the  Scotchman  has  a  different 
animal  to  deal  with  in  his  shed-feeding  from  the  short-horn. 

The  short-horn  feeder,  on  the  contrary,  possesses  a  tame,  quiet,  gentle, 
lethargic  animal,  which  shows  that  universal  mark  of  good  breeding  in 
men  and  animals — he  is  always  quiet.  He  will  neither  pine  at  never 
beholding  the  light,  nor  feel  the  want  of  exercise  if  he  never  leaves  his 
stall,  provided  he  has  food  and  comfort  in  plenty.  Nay,  he  will  hardly 
take  the  exercise  necessary  to  keep  his  limbs  in  healthy  action.  But 
keep  him  from  the  cold  and  wet;  prevent  the  blast  from  passing  over 
him ;  he  likes  protection,  and  thrives  best  in  boxes. 

Take  a  Devon,  or,  if  you  like,  a  Sussex  ox.  He  is  large  and  cumb- 
rous; but  he  is  active.  Give  him  liberty,  and  he  will  roam  and  harass 
himself;  but  he  is  tame  enough  to  keep  to  his  stall  without  pain  or 
fretting.     He  requires  a  stall. 

The  Temperature  at  which  it  is  desirable  to  keep  feeding  animals  is  a 
matter  of  more  importance  than  might  be  inferred  from  the  apparently 
small  amount  of  investigation  bestowed  upon  it.  The  question  is,  are 
we  to  run  the  risk  of  a  wasting  expenditure  of  food  by  perspiration 
under  excessive  heat?  or  are  we  to  induce  them  to  waste  it,  to  keep  up 
animal  heat,  by  exposure  to  too  much  cold  ?  Nay,  will  not  different 
classes  of  feeding  animals  be  subject  to  different  consequences,  from  the 
same  degree  of  heat?  In  the  same  cow-house  there  maybe  some  too 
hot,  and  others  too  cold,  from  their  different  constitutions.  Oxen 
generally  sweat  at  a  temperature  in  wdiich  heifers  thrive  admirabh^;  this 
happens  at  any  rate  till  Christmas,  after  which  they  seem  to  be  able  to 
bear  the  same  degree  of  heat  as  female  animals. 

H.  S.  Thompson,  Esq.,  tied  up  two  sets  of  feeding  bullocks,  eight  into 
a  warmer  shed  than  the  rest.  They  had  the  same  quantity  and  kind 
of  food;  but  those  in  the  warmer  shed  made  more  beef  than  those  in 
the  colder,  showing  that  warm  air,  as  well  as  warm  food,  was  highly 
favorable  to  fattening  short-horns  ;  which  breed,  we  believe,  he  in- 
variably fattens.  The  temperature  he  aims  at  is  about  55°  to  60°  of 
Fahrenheit;  an  increase  of  this  caused  them  to  get  off"  their  food,  and 
lose  their  tone  and  appetite. 

Stillness,  with  the  limitations  given  in  our  remarks  on  shelter,  is  ne- 
cessary to  successful  feeding.  This  is  well  known  to  geese  feeders,  who 
even  nail  them  to  the  boards;  and  it  was  shown  very  strikingly  by  Mr. 
Childers,  M.P.,  in  his  experiments  on  shed-feeding,  and  by  Lord  Bathurst, 
on  stall-feeding  sheep.  An  animal  in  the  very  effort  of  searching  and 
securing  his  food,  expends  the  principle  necessary  to  make  fat ;  hence  it 
is  necessary  that  his  turnips  be  brought  to  him  instead  of  driving  hir? 
to  the  turnips.     They  are  cut  and  placed  before  him,  that  he  may  havo 


CATTLE.  131 

as  little  effort  as  possible  in  the  operation  of  cliewing-,  and  he  has  ample 
allowance  of  room,  so  that  when  he  lias  fed,  he  may  lie  down  and  sleep. 
It  is  a  question  whether  animals  feed  fastest  in  the  dark  or  not. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  whatever  that  any  thing  which  distracts  their 
attention,  which  excites  action,  or  which  produces  nervous  irritation,  is 
opposed  to  fattening;  and,  as  darkness  will  induce  sleep,  ina'^^iion,  and 
promote  quietness,  it  is  so  far  favorable ;  but  it  is  not  so  easy  to  have 
darkness  and  sufficiency  of  fresh  air  at  the  same  time,  and  therefore 
the  best  possible  state,  perhaps,  is  to  have  the  feeding-houses  rather  in 
a  state  of  shady  gloom  than  in  absolute  darkness.  A  certain  amount  of 
nervous  energy  is  necessary  to  give  tone  to  the  vital  powers,  and,  be- 
yond this,  repose  and  quietness  are  easily  attained  by  a  simple  gloom, 
wdiile  shelter  from  flies  and  heat  in  summer,  and  from  blasts,  wet,  and 
extreme  cold  in  w-inter,  should  be  carefully  provided. 

Abiiiiilaiice  of  Good  Food  and  Regularity  of  Feeding,  are  essentials  in  all 
kinds  of  fattening.  Thougli  it  is  not  desirable  to  allow  the  animals  to 
have  food  standing  before  them  when  they  are  filled,  they  should  never, 
on  the  other  hand,  experience  a  single  feeling  of  want.  The  usual  hours 
of  feeding  should  be  strictly  adhered  to,  for  the  two-fold  purpose  of  in- 
ducing regular  periods  of  sleep  and  for  supplying  the  system  with  food 
at  the  first  call  of  appetite. 

Variety  of  Food  is  a  most  essential  element  of  rapid  fattening;  and  it 
is  not  far  from  the  ti;uth  to  say  that  all  kinds  of  food  are  equally  fatten- 
ing, if  they  are  given  in  sufficient  variety.  If  roots,  grain  and  hay  be 
changed  every  few^  days,  the  appetite  is  never  cloyed  ;  and  the  whole  are 
devoured  with  a  relish  which  develops  fat  in  the  most  rapid  manner. 

The  Formation  of  Fat  is  the  work  of  the  grazier,  liis  animals  are 
generally  full  grown,  or  nearly  so,  and,  though  there  may  be  a  small  in- 
crease of  muscle,  still  the  bulk  of  the  material  of  increased  weight  is  fat 
and  not  flesh.  In  this  country,  food  to  be  palatable — to  be  consumable — 
must  be  fat:  unless  it  has  tliis  recommendation  it  is  absolutely  unsal- 
able. The  appetites  of  the  higher  and  the  necessities  of  the  lower  class, 
urge  on  the  demand  for  fatted  beef,  mutton  and  pork;  and  any  brought 
to  market  in  a  state  other  than  fat,  is  looked  upon  as  carrion.  Hence 
the  grazier  must  supply  the  whole  of  his  animals  in  a  fat  state  to  the 
consumer;  and  therefore  it  is  not  the  number  of  animals,  nor  their 
weight  he  has  to  consider,  but  he  has  to  provide  for  them  the  means  of 
fattening  before  they  can  be  brought  to  the  consumer. 

The  saccharine  matter  of  vegetables,  and  their  starch,  will  supply  the 
means  of  fuel-food ;  the  fatty  matter  will  produce  ready-forme<l  fat  to 
deposit;  and  the  albuminous  matter  will  afford  the  flesh  which  waste  is 
continually  throwing  into  the  excretory  system,  and  for  the  small  ad- 
ditions wdiicli  may  be  necessary  to  carry  the  requisite  amount  of  fat. 

It  is  not  not  our  intention  to  enter  into  the  dispute  between  the  two 
schools  of  physiologists,  as  to  whether  the  fat  was  formed  by  transmuta- 
tion of  the  sugar  and  starch  of  the  food,  or  wdi ether  it  consisted  of  the 
ready  formed  fat  of  the  food  on  which  the  animals  fed.  Witliout  for  a  mo- 
ment pretending  to  settle  this  point,  it  is  at  least  desirable  so  far  to  supply 
both  saccharine  and  fatty  matters,  as  to  give  the  system  the  choice  of 
selection. 


132  DOMESTIC   Al^IMALS. 

Preparation  of  Food  for  the  animal's  stomach,  or  a  system  of  cooking, 
is  a  very  important  question.  Steaming  hay,  potatoes  and  turnips,  has 
been  tried  very  carefully  in  Scotland,  and  failed.  For  cattle,  at  least,  it 
is  useless;  how  valuable  soever  it  may  be  for  pigs.  It  is  pretty  certain, 
however,  that,  with  certain  combinations,  all  that  a  feeder  can  desire  is 
attained  by  the  cooking  of  Jlax-seed. 

The  fat  of  animals  is  strictly  analogous  to  vegetable  oil ;  its  elements 
are  much  of  the  same  character  as  sugar,  starch  and  gum,  and  no  doubt 
is  entertained,  by  physiologists  and  chemists,  that  the  fatty  matter  (vege- 
table oil)  in  plants,  is  assimilated  into  animal  fet,  with  but  little  change. 
The  elements  of  those  compounds  severally  are : — 

Sugar. 

Carbon 12 

Hydrogen 11 

Oxygen 11 

The  oil  contained  in  many  seeds  is  given  by  Professor  Johnston  — 

Oil  per  cent.  Oil  per  cent. 


Animal  fat 

Starch. 

Gum. 

Mucilage. 

(stearine). 

12 

12 

24 

71 

10 

10 

19 

69 

10 

10 

19 

7 

Max-seed 11  to  22  sav  17 

Hemp-seed 14  "  25    "*    19 

Rape-seed 40  "  70    "     55 


White  mustard 36  to  38  say  37 

Sweet  almond 40  "  54    "47 

Bitter      do       28  "  46    "    37 


This  would  naturally  indicate  that  any  of  these  seeds  would,  so  far  as 
they  were  palatable,  be  useful ;  and  when  linseed  contains  as  much  as 
seven  per  cent,  of  mucilage,  ten  per  cent,  of  sugar,  and  fifteen  of  soluble 
albumen,  it  is  clearly  indicated  as  being  a  seed  most  valuable  for  feeding 
and  nourishing  purposes. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  adapt  it  to  the  feeding  of  cattle. 
There  was  some  dilKculty  in  grinding  it  by  ordinary  mills,  as  it  clogged 
up  the  teeth;  and  when  given  to  animals  either  alone,  or  combined 
with  considerable  quantities  of  corn,  meal,  or  other  feeding  matter,  the 
effect  on  the  animals  was  purgative,  and  but  few  breeders  persevered  in 
the  use  of  the  seed  alone.  The  demand  for  the  oil,  however,  induced 
the  crushing  of  the  seeds  to  obtain  it,  and  the  refuse  left  was  found  to 
be  very  valuable  as  feeding  material;  wliile  the  portability  of  oil-cake, 
its  cleanliness,  and  capability  of  being  long  kept,  made  it  a  general  and 
desirable  food,  both  for  growing  and  feeding  stock.  The  oil  abstracted, 
the  cake  contains,  according  to  the  same  authority : — 

"\\^atcr 10.05 

Mucilage 39.1 0 

Albumen  and  gluten 22.14 

Oil 1 1.93 

Husks 9.53 

Saline  matter  and  sand 7.25 

1.00 
"We  do  not  see  exactly  liow  the  cake  can  contain  so  large  a  propor- 
tion of  oil  relatively  with  the  seed;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  seed  had 
originally  contained  a  large  proportion  of  oil,  and  that  it  had  been  but 
indifferently  crushed.      Good  English-made  cake,  however,  has  been 


CATTLE.  133 

thoroughly  cstahlishcd  as  one  of  tlie  best  of  fattenino;  products  ;  and  the 
extensive  fanners  of  Lincohisliire  and  other  places  expend  upon  a  single 
farm,  in  one  year,  as  much  as  £400  to  £500,  for  this  article  of  food  ; 
and  so  well  understood  is  its  fertilizing  character,  that  many  land-owners 
are  willing  to  make  themselves  and  their  incoming  tenants,  chargeahle 
with  proportions  of  the  money  so  expended,  at  the  rate  of  one-half  to 
one-third.  It  is  the  o})inion  of  some  of  the  best  farmers,  that  when 
cake  can  be  purchased  at  the  same  price  per  ton,  in  pounds,  that  beef 
and  mutton  can  be  sold  at  per  stone  in  shillings,  it  will  be  paid  for  in  the 
cattle  and  animals  fed,  without  reference  to  the  manure.*  The  price 
of  cake,  however,  depends  on  no  such  element  of  calculation  ;  the  de- 
mand for  it  has  increased  far  beyond  that  of  the  oil,  and  in  some  seasons 
it  has  been  so  great,  that  the  former  became  an  object  of  commerce 
rather  than  the  latter. 

Attempts  have  been  occasionally  made  to  render  the  uncrushed  seed 
available  by  a  cooking  process,  but  it  has  been  generally  found  more 
adapted  for  calves  than  for  store  stock  or  for  fattening;  where  used 
at  all  for  the  latter  purpose,  it  has  only  been  to  supply  a  deficiency  in 
turnips. 

The  most  decisive  step,  however,  in  the  use  of  cooked  linseed,  was 
taken  by  Mr.  Warnes,  of  Trimmingliam,  near  North  Walsham,  in  Nor- 
folk, in  1841,  when  a  discussion  was  appointed  by  the  Farmers'  Club 
there,  on  feeding  cattle  with  linseed  cake.  Mr.  Warnes  commenced  by 
inquiring  into  the  nature  of  cake.  He  immediately  commenced  a  series 
of  experiments  with  flax-seed  in  various  forms — both  crushed,  steeped, 
boiled,  and  cocked  in  various  ways.  lie  also  tried  the  boiling  of  bar- 
ley and  other  food  on  various  animals.  He  ultimately  adopted  a  mode 
of  feeding,  on  what  was  called  by  him  flax-seed  compound.  He  carried 
out,  in  connection  with  his  experiments,  growing,  dressing  and  prepar- 
ing the  flax,  the  feeding  of  cattle  with  the  prepared  seed  in  boxes  as 
antMgonist  to  tying  up,  and  the  summer  grazing  of  cattle  by  soiling. 

His  cooking  apparatus  is  so  simple,  that  it  is  managed  by  a  blind 
man,  whose  happy  countenance  bespeaks  neither  over-weening  anxiety, 
nor  unrenuuierated  toil.  The  apparatus  consists  of  two  cast-metal  boil- 
ers, fixed  in  brick,  and  having  a  fire-place  beneath  them  ;  the  water  is 
made  to  boil  before  the  flax-seed  is  put  in.  The  seed  is  crushed  by  a 
very  powerful  implement,  consisting  of  two  cylinders,  one  of  them  be- 
ing of  large  diameter;  tl.iey  are  made  to  press  upon  each  other  in  their 
revolutions  by  two  lunar  springs,  and  two  men  will  thoroughly  grind 
two  bushels  in  ten  minutes;  at  this  rate  the  men  are  able  to  work  the 
whole  day.  The  mill  is,  however,  capable  of  being  reduced  to  the 
capacity  of  one  man.  The  crushed  flax-seed  is  sprinkled  upon  the  boil- 
ing water  at  the  rate  of  one  gallon  of  seed  to  eight  gallons  of  water; 
great  stress  is  laid  on  sprinkling  the  seed  very  gradually,  otherwise  it  is 
apt  to  adhere  in  lumps,  and  cleave  to  the  sides  or  bottom  of  the  boiler. 
AVitli  this  precaution,  however,  Mr.  Warnes  assures  us  he  has  had  no 
instance,  for  several  years,  of  this  occurrence.  This  mixture  is  boiled 
bix  minutes,  and  for  that  period  is  slightly  stirred;  at  the  end  of  that 

*  The  pound  sterling  is  $4.85  ;  tlie  shilling  is  24  ceDts;  the  stone  weight  14  lbs. 

41 


134:  DOMESTIC    AJSTDIALS. 

time  it  is  found  to  be  a  thick  gelatinous  mass.  In  one  minnte  after  this 
the  mass  became  more  mucilaginous,  and  was  improved.  Nine  bushels 
of  cut  pea  straw  were  then  placed  very  gradually,  and  by  one  bushel  at 
,1  time,  in  a  tub  twenty-eight  inches  high  ;  the  liquid  jelly  was  now 
taken  out  in  a  scoop,  poured  upon  it,  and  as  each  addition  was  made 
the  whole  was  rammed  down  by  a  kind  of  beater,  more  for  the  purpose 
of  mixing  the  mass,  and  confining  the  heat,  than  for  any  other  object. 
The  present  cost  of  the  animals  in  flax-seed  is  3s.  per  head  per  week. 
In  addition  to  this,  they  have  also  about  one  busliel  of  cut  Swedes  per 
day. 

Mr.  "Warnes  occasionally  mixes  his  compound  with  meal.  This, 
when  used,  is  also  sprinkled  over  the  boiling  mucilage.  So  soon  as 
the  first  boiling  was  nearly  emptied  from  the  boiler,  it  was  again  filled 
with  water,  and  was  ready  for  another  boil,  when  required. 

As  a  test  of  its  value,  Mr.  Warnes  furnished  the  following  remarks 
and  experiments  illustrative  of  the  effects  of  his  system :  "  Flax-seed," 
he  says,  "has  five  essential  properties,  naraelv,  mucilage,  oil,  albumen, 
gluten  and  sugar.  The  shell,  or  external  crust,  is  the  hardest  of  all 
seeds,  and  the  most  difficult  to  break  in  pieces  ;  but  not  too  hard  for 
the  miller,  who  has  every  particle  ground  almost  to  powder,  in  order 
that  all  the  oil  may  be  expressed,  which  it  could  not  be  if  coarsely 
crushed.  This  is  demonstrated  by  the  cake,  in  which  the  presence  of 
seed  is  scarcely  apparent.  To  a  similar  state  seed  for  the  cattle  com- 
pounds ought  to  be  reduced  ;  otherwise  some,  at  least,  of  the  properties 
above  described  will  pass  off  without  benefit  to  the  fattenitig  animals. 
This  the  scientific  grazier  will  discover  by  the  excrements,  in  which  he 
will  find  sufiicient  cause  for  grinding,  not  only  flax-seed,  but  all  grain  or 
pulse,  if  possible,  into  flour.  From  researches  like  these  the  profitable 
returns  for  grazing  upon  my  premises,  may  be  dated."  The  expenses  of 
this  copper,  with  the  whole  working  apparatus  for  eighty  or  one  hun- 
dred head  of  stock,  will  not  be  more  than  four  pounds. 

A  part  of  Mr.  Warnes's  system  is  the  feeding  in  boxes,  the  growth  of 
flax-seed,  the  manufcicture  of  the  fiber  into  flax,  and  the  soiling  of  cattle 
with  green  food  and  compound  in  summer.  It  would  swell  this  article 
much  beyond  its  legitimate  limits,  if  the  box  system  were  more  fully 
described.  It  may  suffice  to  say,  that  the  boxes  at  Mr.  Warnes's  have 
been  put  up  very  cheaply — they  form  two  sides  of  what  has  formerly 
been  a  fold-yard.  The  sides  have  liad  a  roof  put  along  the  wall,  sup- 
ported by  pillars  of  wood,  and  divided  by  rails  of  any  ordinary  wood  ; 
the  front  next  the  yard  being  inclosed  by  two  gates.  The  box  is  eight 
feet  six  inches  square;  and  adjoining  the  wall  is  a  passage  from  which 
the  food  is  given  in  tronohs,  which  are  made  to  slide  up  or  down  as  the 
manure  accumulates.  The  manure  is  never  carted  out  until  it  is  taken 
to  the  fields;  and,  as  the  boxes  are  walled  for  one  foot  from  the  bottom, 
there  is  not  the  slightest  escape  of  the  liquid  manure  or  of  the  ammoni>i, 
and  therefore  it  is  peculiarly  ricli,  from  this  circumstance  and  from  the 
stimulating  food  sup])liod  to  the  fattening  animals. 

Much  has  been  said  as  to  the  dirt  and  filth,  and  unnatural  state  of  the 
animals;  but  their  condition  is  precisely  the  reverse,  in  every  respect; 
they  are  quiet,  have  exercise  sufficient  for  healthy  secretion,  can  feed  at 


CATTLE. 


135 


leisure,  and,  whenever  we  observed  them,  tliey  were  clean  and  free  from 
smell,  and  every  thing  objectionable.  The  fact  of  the  treadino;,  and  thor- 
ough consolidation  by  the  animals'  feet,  prevents  fermentation,  and  the 
consequent  evolution  of  gases  which  would  take  place  if  mere  stall-feed- 
ing were  practiced.  On  the  whole,  we  think  there  are  many  more  valid 
reasons  in  favor  of  than  against  box-feeding. 

The  direction  given  to  men's  minds  by  the  experiments  of  Mr. 
Warnes,  induced  trials  with  all  kinds  of  modifications  of  flax-seed  cook- 
ing; but  the  one  which  has  obtained  the  greatest  amount  of  favor  is 
that  adopted  by  Mr.  Marshall,  near  Thirsk.  The  great  diiference  be- 
tween Mr.  Marshall's  plan  and  that  of  Mr.  Warnes,  is,  that  the  material 
cooked  has  not  the  heat  applied  to  it  directly,  but  to  the  outside  of  the 
boiler  in  which  it  is  to  be  cooked,  so  that  no  direct  application  of  the 
fire  shall  take  place  to  barn  the  mucilaginous  matter.  Mr.  Marshall  in- 
sists that,  to  cook  the  material  properly,  it  must  be  boiled  at  least  two 
hours. 

His  mode  is  this : — one  pound  of  flax-seed  is  boiled  for  two  or  three 
liours  in  about  one  and  a  half  gallons  of  ^vater.  Five  pounds  of  straw 
are  chopped,  say  one  inch  long,  and  mixed  with  two  and  a  half  pounds 
of  ground  oats  or  barley  meal  very  intimately,  which  is  then  placed  on 
a  floor  of  flags  of  bricks,  and  the  boiled  seed  poured  upon  the  mass,  and 
turned,  and  then  allowed  to  cool  one  or  two  hours,  when  it  is  given  to 
the  cattle. 

The  cost  of  the  apparatus  or  fitting  will  be  about  £50  (or  $250.) 
On  the  whole  we  think  it  very  desirable  to  adopt  one  or  the  other  pro- 
cess in  all  situations  where  an  increased  quantity,  and  better  quality  of 
manure  is  a  desideratum,  not  to  mention  the  more  profitable  return,  as 
exhibited  in  both  the  systems  described. 

Mr.  Warnes,  altogether  unprejudiced  in  favor  of  his  own  peculiar  sys- 
tem, has  been  experimenting  on  the  mode  recommended  by  some  gra- 
ziers, of  steeping  the  linseed-meal  in  cold  water  for  some  twelve  or 
fourteen  hours, — when  a  slight  mucilaginous  deposit  was  the  result. 
The  experiment  will  no  doubt  be  carefully  and  accurately  made  under 
his  directions ;  but,  we  confess,  our  prepossessions  are  in  favor  of  the 
cooked  materials. 

The  following  is  a  plan  of  Mr  Warnes's  shed  boxes  for  cattle-feeding: 


in  I  ft 


n 


_c 


1.  Cooking  house,  20  by  IG  feet. 

2.  Pump. 

3.  Storehouse,  for  roots,  &c. 


4.  4.  Boxes  averagiiii;  90  square  feet  eirli. 

5.  Fodder-boupp,  with  tank  under  the  floor. 

6.  Passage,  4  feet. 


Mr.  Tliompson,  of  Moat  Ilall,  Yorkshire,  a  most  skillful  and  accurate 


136  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

investigator,  made  some  very  important  experiments  as  to  the  relative 
value  of  hot  and  cold  j^repaj-afum  of  flax-seed.  He  took  two  animals,  and  fed 
the  one  on  hot  and  the  other  on  cold  food.  He  had  both  weighed  before 
he  started,  and  both  again  wciglied  at  the  expiration  of  six  weeks.  The 
animal  fed  on  cold  food  weighed,  when  put  up,  107  stone  11  lbs.  (1,509 
lbs.);  that  fed  on  hot,  108  stone  7  lbs.  (1,533  lbs.)  At  the  end  of  six 
weeks  the  first  had  gained  40  lbs. ;  while  the  last,  the  one  fed  on  hot 
food,  had  gained  71  lbs.  To  guard  against  the  one  having  any  special 
aptitude  to  fatten  which  the  other  did  not  possess,  he  reversed,  the  order; 
and  then  it  turned  out  that  the  animal  now  fed  on  cold  food,  and  before 
on  hot,  gained  53  lbs.,  while  the  other,  now  fed  on  hot  food,  gained 
71  lbs. 

But  not  only  on  the  animals  did  the  results  of  cooked  food  show  itself 
in  this  striking  manner ;  for,  while  one  fed  on  hot  food  had  only  80  lbs. 
of  Swedish  turnips  per  day,  the  one  fed  on  cold  food  was  not  satisfied 
till  his  feed  was  increased  to  87  lbs.  of  turnips  in  the  same  time,  showing 
a  greater  consumption  of  other  food  to  make  up  for  the  want  of  heat ! 

"Food  as  Attectiiig  the  Quality  and  Quantity  of  Milk. — Messrs.  Dumas 

and  13oussingauIt  tried  a  number  of  very  careful  and  interesting  bApcri- 
ments  on  the  quantity  of  milk  and  its  products  which  would  be  given 
by  cows  fed  on  different  kinds  of  food.  They  tried  nearly  all  the  com- 
binations usually  given,  except  perhaps  bean  meal,  and  the  result  was, 
that  the  greatest  quantity  of  milk  was  given  when  the  cow  had  green 
clover,  in  every  case,  i.  e.,  that  in  each  instance  this  yielded  the  greatest 
quantity  of  butter,  and,  with  one  exception,  the  greatest  produce  also 
of  cheese ;  and  that  exception  was  when  the  cow  had  been  but  one  day 
calved,  which  would  account  for  the  abundance  of  cheesy  matter  in  the 
milk.  The  table  is  so  instructive,  that  we  will  quote  one  or  two  of  the 
items : — 

Food.                                            Days  after  calving.   Milk.  Butter.  Cheese. 

Potatoes  and  hay 176  9.3  4.8  3.3 

Hay  and  green  clover 182  8.9  4.5  4.0 

Green  clover 193  9.8  2.2  4.0 

Clover  in  flower 204  7.8  3,5  3.7 

Potatoes  229  5.0  4.0  34 

Turnips 207  6.0  4.2  3.0 

lied  beet 215  5.6  4.0  3.4 

Into  their  philosophical  investigations  and  reasonings  we  shall  not 
enter.  Mangel-wurzel,  bean  meal,  and  orains,  much  increase  the  milk.* 
Good  hay  and  oat  mash  much  increase  the  butter,  and  turnips,  though 
they  give  a  disagreeable  flavor,  greatly  increase  both. 

To  keep  the  cow  as  lorif^  as  possible  m  milk  is  sometimes  an  object. 
Some  cows  dry  early, — some  may  be  milked  through,  though  always 
with  disadvantage  to  both  the  cow  and  the  calf;  both  being  feeble  and 
impaired,  if  it  is  persisted  in.  In  summer  weather,  however,  when  cows 
are  very  deep  milkers,  and  in  high  condition,  it  is  not  only  sometimes 

*  Indian  meal  fed  in  cool  weatlier,  while  it  i.s  a  highly  nutritious  food,  also  adds 
greatly  to  the  ([uantity  and  quality  of  tlie  milk.  The  erroneous  prejudice  against  its 
use  for  milch  cows  has  been  fully  refuted  by  careful  experiments. 


CATTLE.  137 

advisable  but  absolutely  necessary.     A  cow  not  put  to  the  bull  will  hold 
to  her  milk  much  longer  than  one  which  is  res^ulai'ly  breeding. 

THE  DAIRY— BUTTER  AND  CHEESE  MARmG.— In  all  dairy  establish 
ments  ventilation  and  cleanliness  are  indispensable  ;  and  if  butter  is 
made,  the  dairy  proper,  or  butter-room,  should  be  as  near  the  cow-house 
as  possible,  as  the  milk  sufters  more  or  less  considerably  from  being 
agitated,  or  too  much  cooled,  before  it  is  set  for  the  cream  to  rise.  The 
milk  should  be  brought  from  the  cows  without  being  exposed  to  the 
outer  air,  before  it  is  set  to  cream  ;  which  should  be  in  vessels  arranged 
on  a  stone  slab,  below  the  level  of  the  ground ;  the  apartment  being 
sunk  to  the  depth  of  three  or  four  feet,  and  kept  perfectly  dry.  The 
air  may  be  admitted  through  perforated  zinc  plates,  or  woven-wire  win- 
dows, placed  opposite  to  each  other,  having  shutters  which  may  be 
opened  or  closed  according  to  the  temperature  and  state  of  the  weather. 
Glazed  windows  may  be  added,  and  should  be  open,  excepting  in  very 
hot  or  very  cold  weather.  The  situation  should  be  dry,  and  well  shielded 
from  tlie  north,  east,  and  south. 

The  Dairy-House  is,  perhaps,  of  all  other  appliances,  the  one  on  which 
success  most  depends.  It  should  be  apart  from  all  household  operations, 
from  open  grates,  and  from  dung-lieaps,  and  should  have  as  much  as 
possible  tlie  means  of  an  equable  temperature.  As,  however,  it  is  much 
easier  to  keep  a  cold  building  warm,  than  to  cool  a  hot  one,  it  is  desir- 
able that  it  should  be  as  much  as  possible  shielded  from  the  sun's  rays. 
It  should  have  its  side  to  the  north,  its  end  to  the  east,  and  should,  if 
possible,  be  let  into  the  earth  a  few  f(;et,  but  not  so  deep  as  to  interfere 
with  the  drainage.  If  covered  by  a  large  tree  it  would  be  all  the  better. 
Around  it  should  be  either  a  hollow  wall,  or  peat  earth  should  be  walled 
round  its  exterior;  or,  as  another  alternative,  and  possibly  the  best  but 
most  expensive,  it  should  be  suri'ounded  by  a  veranda.  It  should  also 
have  a  double  roof,  and  abundant  top  and  side  ventilation — either  of 
which  should  admit  of  being  closed.  It  is  necessary  to  have  in  it  a 
pump,  the  floor  sloping,  and  on  the  highest  part  a  perforated  pipe  should 
be  connected  with  the  pump,  to  allow  of  the  cleansing  of  the  floor 
Avith  cold  spring  water  when  necessary.  The  bowls  should  either  be 
earthen-ware  or  glass  dishes,  placed  upon  wooden  tables — fir,  maple,  or 
sycamore  are  the  best;  or  leaden  bowls  may  be  used,  placed  on  frames, 
and  surrounding  the  dairy.  Stones  are  the  best  for  the  floors,  and  a 
lining  for  the  walls  of  white  pottery  is  not  only  elegant  but  useful ;  a 
pipe  connected  with  the  boiler  attached  to  the  kitchen  fire  is  a  great 
advantage,  with  a  stop-cock,  so  as  to  regulate  the  heat  of  the  room  in 
winter.  The  scalding  and  churning  rooms  should  be  distinct  from  the 
milk-house,  and  the  latter  should  be  kept  as  free  as  possible  from  all 
kinds  of  foreign  iiiatter.  An  outer  veranda  is  useful  for  drying  the 
dishes  and  pails,  and  therefore  desirable,  when  the  dairy  is  sufiiciently 
extensive  to  fender  the  expense  of  its  erection  judicious. 

Butter  is  the  fat  or  oleaginous  part  of  the  milk  of  various  animals, 
principally  of  the  domestic  cow.  The  milk  of  the  cow  is  composed  of 
three  distinct  ingredients — the  curd,  the  whey,  and  the  butter;  the  two 
first  form  the  largest  portion,  and  the  last  the  most  valuable.  The  com- 
parative value  of  the  milk  of  different  cows,  or  of  the  same  cows  fed  on 


138  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

different  pastures,  is  estimated  cliiefly  by  the  qnantity  of  butter  con- 
tained in  it;  and  in  this  respect  some  breeds  of  cows  are  far  superior 
to  others.  The  union  of  the  component  parts  of  milk  is  chiefly  mechan- 
ical, as  they  separate  by  subsidence  according-  to  their  specific  gravities, 
the  cream  being  the  lightest,  and  the  curd  the  heaviest ;  the  curd,  how- 
ever, requires  a  slight  chemical  change  for  its  separation  from  the  whey, 
■which  at  the  same  time  produces  a  peculiar  acid,  called  the  lactic  acid. 
From  the  moment  that  milk  is  drawn  fi'om  the  cow,  it  begins  to  be 
affected  by  the  air  and  changes  of  tempei'ature,  and  circumstances  almost 
imperceptible  to  our  senses  will  materially  affect  its  quality ;  hence  the 
importance  of  extreme  care  in  every  step  of  the  process  of  the  dairy, 
especially  in  making  butter. 

The  cows  should  be  milked  in  the  cool  of  the  morning  and  evening; 
they  should  not  be  much  driven  immediately  before  milking,  and  it  is 
best  to  bring  them  to  the  place  of  milking  some  time  before  the  opera- 
tion begins.  In  some  situations  it  is  better  to  milk  them  in  the  pas- 
tures and  carry  the  milk  home ;  in  others  to  drive  the  cows  gently  to 
the  cow-stalls.  In  mountainous  countries  the  first  mode  is  generally 
adopted,  because  the  cows  are  apt  to  leap  down  steep  places,  aiid  shake 
the  milk  in  their  udder  more  than  is  done  by  carrying  it  in  the  pail. 
The  same  practice  holds  good  in  Holland  from  another  cause,  which  is 
the  distance  of  the  pastures  from  the  home-stalls,  and  the  ficility  of 
transporting  the  milk  in  small  boats,  all  the  best  pastures  being  sur- 
rounded by  small  canals  communicating  with  the  greater;  thus  the 
milk  may  be  carried  several  miles  without  the  least  agitation. 

As  soon  as  the  milk  is  brought  into  the  dairy,  it  is  strained  through 
a  fine  sieve  or  cloth,  and  it  is  then  poured  into  shallow  pans  or  troughs 
lined  with  lead.  The  best  pans  are  of  metal,  either  of  iron,  carefully 
tinned,  or  of  brass.  Such  pans  are  cool  in  summer,  and  in  winter  allow 
of  the  application  of  heat,  which  is  often  very  useful  to  make  the  cream 
rise.  When  leaden  troughs  are  used,  they  are  generally  fixed  to  the 
wall,  and  have  a  slight  inclination  toward  one  end,  where  there  is  a 
hole  with  a  plug  in  it,  by  drawing  which  the  thin  milk  is  allowed  to 
run  off  slowly,  leaving  the  cream  behind,  which  runs  la^st  through  the 
hole  into  the  pan  placed  under  to  receive  it.  The  milk  in  the  pans  or 
troughs  is  generally  four  or  five  inches  in  depth,  which  is  found  most 
conducive  to  the  separation  of  the  cream.  The  place  where  the  milk 
is  set  should  have  a  thorough  draught  of  air  by  means  of  opposite  w'we 
windows.  The  sun  should  be  carefully  excluded  by  high  buildings  or 
trees,  and  the  floor,  which  should  always  be  of  brick  or  stone,  should  be 
continually  kept  moist  in  summer,  that  the  evaporation  may  produce  an 
equal,  cool  temperature.  A  small  stove  in  winter  is  a  great  advantage, 
provided  smoke  or  smell  be  most  carefully  avoided,  and  the  temperature 
be  carefully  regulated  by  a  thermometer.  In  Switzerland  men  are 
chiefly  employed  to  milk  the  cows,  and  in  all  the  process  of  the  prep- 
aration of  butter  and  cheese.  The  women  only  clean  the  utensils,  and 
cai-ry  green  food  to  the  cows  when  they  are  kept  in  the  stable.  When 
the  milk  has  stood  twelve  hours,  the  finest  parts  of  the  cream  have  risen 
to  the  surface,  and  if  they  are  then  taken  oft'  by  a  skimming-dish,  and 
immediately  churned,  a  very  dedicate  butter  is  obtained ;  butin  general 


CATTLE. 


139 


it  is  left  twenty-four  hours,  when  the  cream  is  collected  by  skimming, 
or  the  thin  milk  is  let  off  b}^  taking  out  the  plug  in  the  troughs.  All 
the  cream  is  put  into  a  deep  earthen  jar,  which  should  be  glazed,  but 
not  with  lead  ;  stone-ware  is  the  best.  More  cream  is  added  every  day, 
till  there  is  a  sutticient  quantity  to  churn,  which  in  moderate  dairies  is 
every  two  days.  It  is  usual  to  stir  the  cream  often,  to  encourage  a 
slight  acidity,  by  which  the  process  of  churning  is  accelerated.  This 
acidity  is  sometimes  produced  by  the  addition  of  vinegar  or  lemon-juice; 
but  however  this  may  f;icilitate  the  conversion  of  the  cream  into  butter, 
the  quality  is  decidedly  injured  by  it,  especially  butter  which  is  to  be 
salted.  It  has  been  asserted  by  some  authors  that  butter  will  not  separ- 
ate from  the  buttermilk  until  acidity  is  produced,  and,  no  doubt,  there  is 
more  or  less  of  lactic  acid  in  all  buttermilk  ;  but  perfectly  fresh  cream, 
which  lias  stood  only  one  night  and  is  churned  early  next  morning,  will 
generally  produce  excellent  butter  in  a  quarter  of  an  hour  or  twenty 
minutes  in  summer,  and  no  acid  taste  can  be  discovered  in  the  butter- 
milk. The  change  by  which  the  butter  is  separated  in  a  solid  form  is 
accompanied  by  the  development  of  heat  in  churning. 


TABLE  CHXJEN. 


Churn. — As  to  the  form  of  churn  there  may  be  a  variety  of  opinions. 
The  ultimate  object  is  to  secure  that  form  which  will  facilitate  a  rapid, 
steady,  and  shaking  pressure  of  the  contents;  and  this  is  effected  either 
bv  a  flapper,  driven  through  the  cream,  at  a  cousiderable  rate,  by  means 
of  a  piston  with  a  perforated  base ;  by  a  perpendicular  motion,  raised 
up  and  down  in  a  cylindrical  or  similarly  formed  vessel ;  or,  what  is 
more  common,  and  by  no  means  the  worst  form  of  churn,  a  cylinder 
studded  with  perorated  beaters,  fastened  to  its  inner  surface,  and  re- 
volving round  its  two  axles,  admitting  of  one  handle  or  two,  according 
to  the  quantity  oi  the  cream.  By  this  means  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
cream,  as  well  as  the  force  and  impetus  of  the  machine,  are  both  brought 
into  play  to  excite  the  heat,  th .  pressure,  and  the  agitation  necessary  to 
the  proper  and  speedy  deve'j'pment  of  the  butter.     To  this  horse  or 


140  DOMESTIC   ANLMAJLS. 

steam  power  may  be  easily  attached,  and  though  there  have  been  many 
forms  of  churn  in  use,  we  are  not  certain  that  any  very  o-reat  improve- 
ment on  the  above  form  ha^  so  far  been  discovered.  Plans  have  been 
adopted  to  diminish  the  labor,  but  this  has  often  ended  in  defective 
operation.  The  American  and  tlie  table  churns,  avaihible  for  the  ex- 
temporaneous manufacture  of  butter  every  morning  for  the  tables  of  the 
rich,  are  so  far  a  step  in  advance,  and  a  hixury ;  but  for  the  large  opera- 
tions of  the  dairy-farmer,  a  better  application  than  the  churn  of  his  fore- 
fathers has  not  yet  been  discovered. 

Some  experienced  dairy-men  pretend  that  the  butter  is  deteriorated 
by  much  washing,  and  therefore  they  express  the  buttermilk  by  simply 
beating  the  butter  with  the  hand,  kept  cool  by  frequently  dipping  it  in 
cold  water,  or  with  a  moist  cloth  wrapped  in  the  form  of  a  ball,  which 
soaks  up  all  the  buttermilk,  and  leaves  the  butter  quite  dry.  This 
operation  requires  the  greatest  attention,  especially  in  warm  weather, 
and  no  person  should  work  the  butter  who  has  not  a  cool  hand.  The 
less  it  is  handled  the  better,  and  therefore  a  wooden  spoon  or  spatula  is 
much  to  be  preferred. 

When  it  is  entirely  freed  fi'om  the  buttermilk,  and  of  a  pi-oper  con- 
sistency, it  is  divided  into  portions  of  the  weight  required,  if  it  is  in- 
tended to  be  sold  fresh.  But  the  greatest  part  of  the  butter  that  is 
made,  especially  at  a  distance  from  large  towns,  is  immediately  salted 
and  put  into  casks,  which  usually  contain  fifty-six  pounds,  and  are  called 
firkins.  The  quality  of  the  salt  used  is  of  great  importance  ;  if  it  be 
pure,  the  butter  will  keep  its  flavor  a  long  time  ;  but  when  it  is  impure, 
and  contains  bitter  and  deliquescent  salts,  the  butter  soon  becomes 
rancid.  The  Dutch  are  very  particular  on  this  point.  They  use  a  kind 
of  salt  which  is  made  by  slow  evaporation,  and  perfectly  crystallized. 
The  salt  is  intimately  mixed  with  the  butter.  From  three  pounds  to 
five  pounds  is  sufficient  for  a  firkin  of  fifty-six  pounds.*  The  casks  are 
made  of  clean  white  wood.  They  are  carefully  washed  inside  with 
strong  brine  made  hot,  and  rubbed  over  with  salt.  The  butter,  being 
quite  dry,  is  pressed  close  into  the  cask,  a  small  layer  of  salt  having 
been  first  put  on  the  bottom.  Every  addition  is  carefully  incorporated 
with  the  preceding  portion.  If  there  is  not  a  sufficient  quantity  to 
fill  the  cask  at  once,  the  surface  is  made  smooth,  some  salt  is  put  over 
it,  and  a  cloth  is  pressed  close  upon  it  to  exclude  the  air.  When  the 
remainder  is  added,  at  the  next  churning,  the  cloth  is  taken  off,  and 
the  salt,  wliich  had  been  put  on  the  sniface,  is  carefully  removed  with 
a  spoon.  The  surfjice  is  dug  into  with  a  small  wooden  spade,  and  laid 
rough,  and  the  newly-salted  butter  is  added  and  incorporated  complete- 
ly. This  prevents  a  streak,  which  would  otherwise  appear  at  the  place 
where  the  two  portions  joined.  When  the  cask  is  full,  some  salt  is  put 
over  it,  and  the  head  is  put  in.  If  the  butter  was  w-11  freed  from  all 
the  buttermilk,  and  the  salt  mixed  with  it  was  quhe  dry,  it  will  not 
shrink  in  the  cask,  and  it  will  keep  its  flavor  for  a  lo  ig  time.     Should 

*  The  folloVr.g  mixture  has  been  found  supcior  to  salt  alone  in  curing  butter — 
half  an  ounce  of  dry  salt  pounded  hue,  two  dra,.hms  of  sugar,  and  two  drachms  of 
saltpetre,  for  every  pound  of  butter. 


CATTLE.  141 

there  be  an  appearance  of  shrinkino;,  the  cask  must  be  opened,  and 
melted  butter  poured  I'onnd  it  so  as  to  till  up  the  interstices  between 
the  butter  and  the  cask.  There  is  a  mode  of  preserving  butter  for 
domestic  use  without  salt,  m  the  followiug  manner :  the  butter  is  set 
in  a  clean  pan  over  tbe  fire,  and  melted  veiy  gently  ;  it  is  not  allowed 
to  boil,  but  is  heated  very  nearly  to  the  boiling  point.  Experience  has 
shown  this  heat  to  be  attained  when  the  retiection  of  the  white  of  the 
eye  is  distinctly  seen  on  the  surface  of  the  butter  on  looking  down  into 
the  pan.  All  the  watery  particles  are  then  evaporated,  and  the  curd, 
of  which  a  portion  always  remains  in  the  butter,  and  which  is  one  cause 
of  its  becoming  rancid,  tails  to  the  bottom.  The  clear  butter  is  poured 
into  an  earthen  vessel  and  covered  over  with  paper,  and  a  bladder  or  a 
piece  of  leather  is  tied  over  the  jar  to  exclude  the  air.  When  it  is 
cooled,  it  much  resembles  hogs'  lard.  It  has  lost  some  of  its  flavor,  but 
it  is  much  superior  to  salt  butter  for  culinary  purposes,  and  especially 
for  pastry. 

The  Devonshire  method  of  making  butter  is  peculiar  to  that  county. 
The  milk,  instead  of  being  set  for  the  cream  to  rise,  is  placed  in  tin  or 
earthen  pans,  holding  about  eleven  or  twelve  quarts  each.  Twelve 
hours  after  milking,  tljese  pans  are  placed  on  a  broad  iron  plate,  lieated. 
by  a  small  furnace.  The  milk  is  not  allowed  to  boil,  but  a  thick  scum 
rises  to  the  suiface.  As  soon  as  small  bubbles  begin  to  appear,  where  a 
portion  of  this  scum  is  removed  with  a  spoon,  the  milk  is  taken  off  and 
allowed  to  cooL  The  thick  part  is  taken  off  the  surface,  and  this  is 
called  clouted  cream  ;  it  is  a  sweet,  pleasant  substance,  more  solid  than 
cream,  but  not  so  solid  as  butter,  and  is  generally  considered  a  dainty. 
A  very  slight  agitation  converts  it  into  real  butter,  after  which  it  is 
treated  exactly  as  we  have  before  described. 

Another  method  of  making  butter,  which  is  more  generally  adopted, 
is  to  churn  the  milk  and  cream  together.  This  metliod  is  pursued  in 
parts  of  Holland,  Scotland  and  Ireland,  and  is  said  to  produce  a  greater 
abundance  of  butter  from  the  same  quantity  of  milk.  In  the  Dutch 
method  the  milk  is  put  into  deep  jars  in  a  cool  place,  and  each  meal, 
or  portion  milked  at  one  time,  is  kept  separate.  As  soon  as  there  is  a 
slight  appearance  of  acidity,  the  whole  is  churned  in  an  upright  churn, 
which,  from  the  quantity  of  milk,  is  of  very  large  dimensions.  The 
plunger  is  worked  by  machinery  moved  by  a  horse,  or  sometimes  by  a 
dog  walking  in  a  wheel,  which  he  turns  by  his  weight.  When  the  but- 
ter begins  to  form  into  small  kernel-,  the  contents  of  the  churn  are 
emptied  on  a  sieve,  which  lets  the  buttermilk  pass  through.  The  but- 
ter is  then  formed  into  a  mass,  as  described  before. 

It  is  an  acknowledged  fact,  that  such  are  the  niceties  of  the  dairy 
that  great  experience  alone  can  insure  a  produce  of  superior  quality, 
and  this  experience  would  be  more  readily  acquired  if  the  circumstances 
were  accurately  observed  and  noted.  We  would  recommend  to  those 
who  have  extensive  dairies,  to  mark  by  the  thermometer  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  milk  and  cream  in  the  different  stages  of  the  process ;  occa- 
sionally to  test  the  acidity  of  the  buttermilk  by  means  of  alkalis;  and 
to  note  any  peculiarity  in  the  atmosphere  by  an  electrometer.  A  few 
observations,   carefully  noted,   repeated,   and    compared,   would   throw 


142  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

more  light  on  the  true  causes  which  favor  or  oppose  the  production  of 
good  butter,  than  all  the  guesses  that  have  hitherto  been  made. 

The  quality  of  the  butUT  depends  materially  on  the  nature  of  the 
pasture.  The  best  is  made  from  cows  fed  in  rich  natural  meadows. 
Certain  plants,  which  grow  in  poor  and  marshy  soils,  give  a  disagreea- 
ble taste  to  the  butter.  The  common  notion  that  the  yellow  liower 
called  the  buttercup  gives  color  and  flavor  to  butter  is  a  mistake ;  cows 
never  crop  the  liower  if  they  can  avoid  it,  and  the  whole  plaut  is  acrid 
and  unpalatable.  AVhen  cov>'s  are  fed  with  cut  grass  in  the  stable,  the 
butter  is  inferior,  except  in  the  case  of  some  artificial  grasses,  such  as 
hicern.  Turnips  and  other  roots  given  to  cows  in  winter  communicate 
more  or  less  of  a  bad  taste  to  butter,  which  is  corrected  in  some  degree 
by  means  of  a  small  quantity  of  water  and  saltpetre  added  to  the  milk ; 
and  also,  it  is  said,  by  giving  salt  to  the  cows  with  their  food.  But  there 
is  no  butter  made  in  winter  equal  to  that  which  is  made  when  the  cows 
are  fed  entirely  with  good  meadow  hay,  especially  of  the  second  crop, 
called  after-math  hay,  which  contains  few  seed  stalks. 

The  yellow  color  of  May  butter  is  frequently  imitated  artificially,  by 
mixing  some  ground  anatto  root,  or  the  juice  of  carrots,  with  the  cream. 
This  is  easily  detected  by  the  taste  of  the  butter,  which  is  not  improved 
by  it,  and  has  not  the  peculiar  flavor  of  fine  grass  butter;  but  in  other 
respects  it  is  a  harmless  addition.  Some  cows  give  a  much  yellower 
cream  than  others,  especially  the  Alderney  cows;  and  the  butter  made 
from  it  is  of  a  peculiarly  fine  flavor.  AVhen  a  cow  has  lately  calved, 
the  milk  is  also  much  yellower,  but  this  soon  goes  oflf,  if  it  be  not  the 
natural  color;  and  the  butter  made  by  mixing  this  with  other  milk,  al- 
though of  a  deeper  color,  is  not  improved  by  it. 

According  to  the  accounts  of  the  produce  of  .butter  from  diff"erent 
countries  and  various  breeds  of  cows,  we  may  state  that,  on  an  average, 
four  gallons  of  milk  produce  sixteen  ounces  of  butter  ;  and  to  make  the 
feeding  of  cows  for  the  dairy  a  profitable  employment,  a  good  cow 
should  produce  six  pounds  of  butter  per  week  in  summer,  and  half  that 
quantity  in  winter,  allowing  from  six  weeks  to  two  months  for  her  being 
dry  before  calving;  that  is  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  in  twenty 
weeks  after  calving,  and  eighty  pounds  in  the  remainder  of  the  time  till 
she  goes  dry — in  all,  about  two  hundred  pounds  in  the  year.  If  she 
produces  more,  she  may  be  considered  as  a  superior  cow ;  if  less,  she  is 
below  par. 

The  quality  of  the  butter  produced  in  England  and  in  Holland  is 
considered  the  best.  A  considerable  quantity  of  Dutch  butter  is  export- 
ed, but  all  that  is  produced  in  England  is  consumed  at  home,  in  addi- 
tion to  large  quantities  imported  from  Ireland  and  the  continent  of 
Europe.  The  quantity  imported  has  been  for  some  time  progressively 
increasing. 

Premium  Bllttcr-llukinjr.— The  following,  read  at  the  last  meeting 
of  the  American  Institute  Farmers'  Club,  details  the  practice  of  one 
of  the  best  butter-makers  in  the  State  of  New  York,  Mr.  Jesse  Carpen- 
ter, of  Elmira,  in  that  state.  It  was  communicated  by  Mr.  H.  E.  Low- 
man.  We  invite  the  special  attention  of  all  our  dairy  readers  to  the 
views  here  propounded,  as  they  come  from  a  source  entitling  them  to 


CATTLE.  143 

tlie  liiglicst  confidence.  Mr.  Carpenter  has  long  been  Icnown  in  the 
i)ntter  making  region,  and  in  tl)e  market,  as  one  of  the  most  intelligelit 
'i^iKl  successful  dairymen  and  farmers  in  the  county,  and  as  a  manufac- 
turer of  the  veritable  "  Orange  county  butter  :^^ 

"  The  basis  for  a  good  and  profitable  butter-dairy  is,  a  stock  liilfilling 
as  nearly  as  practicable  all  those  constitutional  and  structural  conditions 
^vhich  combine  in  the  animal  high  milking  qualities,  with  good  size, 
robust  health,  and  longevity.  The  next  step^g  a  prompt  and  thorough 
practice  of  the  best  method  of  treatment  of  the  same  by  which  the 
largest  yield  of  the  best  quality  of  milk  is  secured.  The  next  and  best 
step  in  the  achievement  of  a  first-class  dairy  of  butter  is  the  application 
to  its  manufacture  of  an  intimate  and  critical  knowledge  of  the  true 
process — from  the  expressing  of  the  milk  to  the  final  touch  the  butter 
receives  preparatory  to  the  transit  of  the  package  to  market. 

*' How  to  take  the  first  step?  ^.  e.,  lay  in  the  stock,  or  near  it,  Mr. 
Carpenter  thinks  can  be  known  much  more  satisfactorily  by  reference  to 
and  study  of  popular  authorities  on  the  subject — writers  who  have  made 
the  rearing  of  stock  with  that  view  a  speciality,  and  yet  it  is  practical, 
common  sense,  and  close  and  accurate  observation  which  must  be  the 
main  dependence  at  last.  The  next  branch  of  inquiry,  which  is  none 
the  less  important,  is  not  so  easily  pursued  to  satisfactory  results  by  an 
'  appeal  to  the  same  sources  of  information.  Long  and  close  experience 
has  confirmed  Mr.  Carpenter  in  the  accuracy  of  the  following  system  or 
mode  of  treatment :  the  best  summer  food  for  the  dairy  stock,  that 
which  yields  the  largest  quantity  and  best  quality  of  milk,  is  a  mixture 
of  the  finer  grasses,  such  as  red  and  white  clover,  timothy,  and  blue 
grass,  all  of  which  thrive  w^ell  in  desirable  couibination  in  the  pasture 
fields  of  the  Chemung  Valley.  All  coarse,  rank,  and  strongly-fiavored 
weeds,  of  whatever  description,  must  be  banished  from  the  feeding  range 
of  the  dairy  stock,  otherwise  butter  of  the  finest  quality  cannot  be  made. 
Neither  should  they  be  fed  during  the  milking  season  on  any  description 
of  roots  or  coarse  pungent  vegetables,  such  as  cabbage,  if  the  butter  is 
to  be  packed  in  firkins  or  any  other  vessel  with  the  purpose  of  keep- 
ing. 

"  Even  pumpkins  are  not  desirable,  though  they  may  be  used  without 
material  detriment.  In  the  spi'ing  the  season  roots  are  most  commonly 
used  and  advised.  A  small  allowance  of  grain  is  much  more  beneficial. 
It  accomplishes  just  what  is  needed,  without  contributing  to  undesirable 
results.  It  gives  additional  strength  of  muscle — the  main  thing  de- 
sired— while,  if  judiciously  given,  it  does  not  materially  increase  the 
deposit  of  fat.  It  also  increases  the  quantity,  and  improves  the  quality 
of  the  milk,  while  roots  and  vegetables  increase  the  quantity,  but  rather 
deteriorate  the  quality. 

"During  the  milking  season  the  cows  must  be  moved  from  the  pas- 
ture-field with  great  caution  to  prevent  overheat  of  the  system.  That 
cannot  take  place  in  any  degree  without  the  milk  being  unfavorably  af- 
fected in  a  corresponding  ratio.  And  when  they  are  in  the  heat  of  the 
sexual  or  copulating  fever,  the  milk  should  not  be  used  in  the  dairy,  or 
with  that  from  which  butter  for  packing  is  to  be  made.  For  at  such 
periods  nature  has  provided  for  a  medical  interruption  of  the  secretion 


144  DOMESTIC    ANIMAI^S. 

of  the  animal,  and  the  milk  is  orrcatly  reduced  in  quantity,  and  in  like 
measure  improved  in  quality.  Indeed  the  abnormal  heat  produced  in 
the  udder  is  of  itself  sufficient  cause  for  rejecting;  the  milk  for  butter- 
making.  In  the  fall,  where  the  grass  begins  to  fail,  and  loses  its  nutri- 
tive or  milk-producing  elements,  there  is  nothing  that  can  equal  corn- 
stalks as  a  substitute.     The  corn  should  be  sown  for  the  purpose. 

"Daring  the  winter  months  the  stock  should  be  stabled  or  otherwise 
sheltered  from  the  severities  of  the  weather  for  the  night,  and  while 
they  feed.  And  the  care,  and  amount  and  kind  of  food  must  be  so  ap- 
pointed that  they  rather  improve  in  condition  and  vigor  than  otherwise; 
at  least  they  must  not  be  allow^ed  to  run  down  to  poor  liesh  and  weak- 
ness ;  for  then  no  amount  of  attention  and  good  nursing  through  the 
summer  will  restore  them  to  full  milking  capacities.  The  loss  is  irrep- 
arable for  the  season. 

"A  very  thorough  and  practical  understanding  of  the  next  and  last 
branches,  ^.  e.,  the  treatment  of  the  milk,  and  the  process  of  butter  mak- 
ing, is  much  more  difficult  to  obtain,  because  the  knowledge  is  much  more 
difficult  to  impart.  With  all  the  rules  that  may  be  given,  there  must 
be  superadded,  as  conditions  for  their  successful  application,  the  neces- 
sity for  close  and  critical  observation.  For  there  are  constantly  arising 
circumstances  to  modify  the  most  of  such  which  may  be  laid  down  in  a 
general  system. 

"For  depositing  the  milk  when  strained,  the  tin  pail  of  the  capacity 
of  about  twelve  quarts  is  preferable  to  any  other  kind  of  vessel.  It  is 
sufficiently  largo  to  fulfill  all  the  requirements  in  that  particular;  while 
its  superiority  over  the  shallow  pan — which  is  considerably  used — is  too 
palpable  to  admit  of  doubt.  The  following  propositions  in  point,  are 
sustained  by  facts,  the  application  or  pertinency  of  which,  all  who  have 
ever  made  butter,  or  who  have  been  in  a  dairy  with  their  eyes  open  to 
the  every  day  phenomena  therein,  Avill  readily  apprehend,  viz. :  that 
milk,  in  order  to  realize  from  it  the  largest  quantity  and  best  quality  of 
butter,  must  stand  in  an  atmosphere  of  a  given  temperature  a  specific 
length  of  time,  in  all  cases,  in  order  to  perfect  it  for  the  churn  ;  that 
natural  or  artificial  causes,  either  accelerating  or  retarding  the  processes 
of  change  in  its  elements  from  that  fixed  standard,  have  their  like  certain 
results  of  deterioration,  both  in  the  quality  and  the  quantity  of  the  butter 
produced  ;  that  a  given  quantity  of  milk,  with  the  greatest  surface  ex- 
])osure  to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  in  a  given  temperature,  will 
change  more  rapidly  than  a  like  quantity  in  a  like  temperature,  with  a 
less  surface  exposure.  The  fiicts  in  prootj  it  need  scarcely  be  intimated, 
condemn  the  use  of  the  shallow  pan. 

"Every  dairy-woman  has  observed  the  effects  of  a  close,  muggy  and 
liumid  atmosphere— such  as  often  precedes  rain-storms  in  the  summer — 
upon  the  milk ;  also,  of  a  thun<ler-stonn,  also  of  only  partly  filling  a  vessel. 
In  all  cases  named,  the  change  in  the  milk  is  much  more  rapid  than  when 
the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  is  even,  and  the  equilibrium  of  its 
vital  elements  more  perfectly  sustained  ;  and  then  in  pails  filled  to  their 
capacity.  In  all  these  instances  too,  the  milk  must  be  churned  sooner. 
But  there  is  no  method  that  will  prevent  a  loss  of  product  in  quantity 
and  quality. 


CAITLK.  145 

"  It  is  difficult  to  reach  fully  the  truth  of  the  first  proposition.  But 
we  can  approximate  to  it,  and  then  adapt  our  practice  as  nearly  to  such 
standard  or  rule  as  it  is  possible  to  do.  The  temperature  of  the  room 
where  the  milk  is  set  must  never  exceed  65°  F.,  and  must  be  as  steady 
and  even  as  possible.  The  atmosphere  of  the  same  must  be  kept  perfectly 
pure  ;  for  any  odor  peculiar  to  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  or  organic 
substances  mingling  therewith,  will  inevitably  leave  its  taint  upon  the 
milk  and  its  product. 

When  the  casein  is  precipitated  or  the  milk  coagulated,  it  is  ready  to 
churn.  It  must  not  stand  until  the  second  change  takes  place  in  the 
lacteal  or  the  sugar  of  milk  ;  that  is,  until  the  lactic  acid  becomes  bu- 
tyric acid,  the  latter  stage  of  which  may  be  known  from  the  discolored 
spots  of  mould  gathered  on  the  surface  of  the  cream.  The  thick  milk 
should  always  be  emptied  with  the  cream  into  the  churn.  There  are 
two  important  reasons  in  support  of  this  method.  First,  the  cream  never 
all  rises  to  the  surface,  and  there  must  always  remain  with  the  coagu- 
lated part  quite  a  fraction  of  the  fatty  matter,  which  is  lost  if  not 
churned.  Second,  there  is  a  virtue  in  the  casein  and  lactic  acid  which 
is  essential  in  the  process  of  churning  to  import  to  the  product  the  ele- 
ment of  preservation.  It  is  a  fact  which  should  be  known  by  all  dairy -men 
and  dealers,  that  the  product  of  cream  exclusively,  however  skillfully 
manipulated,  will  not,  if  packed  for  keeping,  preserve  for  any  length  of 
time  the  finer  qualities  of  good  butter. 

"The  milk  in  the  churn,  when  fit  for  churning,  should  indicate  64° 
Fah.,  and  should  be  agitated  with  a  movement  of  the  dash  at  not  less 
than  fifty  strokes  to  the  minute.  Less  motion  will  fail  to  divide  properly 
the  butter  from  the  milk.  When  done,  the  butter  should  be  taken  from 
the  churn  and  thrown  into  a  tub  or  a  small  churn  partly  filled  with  water 
42°  to  44"^  Fah.,  and  the  buttermilk  forced  out  with  a  small  dash.  It 
should  then  be  put  into  trays  and  washed  until  the  water  used  ceases  to 
be  the  least  discolored  with  buttermilk.  It  is  then  ready  for  salting, 
which  should  be  done  and  the  trays  immediately  carried  to  the  cellar. 
The  proper  amount  is  1^  oz.  to  the  pound  of  butter  after  working — ^.  ^., 
the  butter  should  retain  that  amount  when  ready  for  packing.  When 
it  has  stood  three  or  four  hours  after  the  first  salting,  it  should  be  stirred 
with  a  ladle  and  left  in  the  form  of  a  honey-comb,  in  order  to  give  it 
the  greatest  possible  surface  exposure  to  the  air,  which  gives  color  and 
fixes  the  high  flavor. 

"  Butter  when  well  manufactured,  while  standing  preparatory  to  pack- 
ing, is  composed  of  granulated  particles,  between  which  are  myriads  of 
infinitesimal  cells  filled  with  brine,  which  is  its  life.  At  this  period  it 
should  be  touched  with  a  light  hand,  as  too  much  and  too  careless  work- 
ing will  destroy  its  granular  and  cellular  character,  and  reduce  the  whole 
to  a  compact  and  lifeless  mass,  with  an  immediate  loss  of  flavor,  and  a 
certain  and  reliable  prospect,  if  packed,  of  a  rapid  change  of  its  character 
from  indifferently  good  to  miserabl}'  poor  butter.  It  should  never  be 
worked  in  the  tray  while  in  a  dry  state,  or  all  the  ill  results  just  alluded 
to  will  be  realized.  As  a  general  rule,  after  the  butter  has  stood  in  the 
trays  twenty-four  hours,  and  has  been  worked  three  or  four  times,  as 
directed,  it  is  ready  for  packing.  After  the  firkin  is  filled,  it  should  stand 
7 


14G  domj:stic  a^^imals. 

a  short  time,  and  tlien  should  be  covered  with  a  clean  piece  of  muslin, 
and  the  whole  covered  with  brine. 

"It  will  not  be  out  of  place  for  the  writer  to  state  from  his  own  knowl- 
edc;e,  and  upon  his  own  responsibility,  a  few  facts  in  connection  with 
the  above,  referring  solely  to  Mr.  Carpenter's  success  as  a  dairyman.  For 
the  last  twenty  years,  besides  fattening  the  calves  to  the  customary  age 
of  four  weeks,  he  has  averaged  a  fraction  over  two  firkins  to  the  cow 
per  year.  He  has  had  butter  stand  in  packages  in  his  cellar  for  one 
year  and  a  half,  and  open  them  with  a  flavor  so  fresh  and  sweet  that 
the  very  best  and  most  critical  jndges  and  buyers  were  deceived  one 
year  in  its  age — none  even  suspecting  it  to  be  the  product  of  a  former 
year.  He  never  has,  during  that  period,  failed  to  reach  in  New-York 
market  the  highest  figure  representing  the  maximum  market  for  Orange 
county  butter;  and  latterly,  he  has  very  often  overreached  the  very 
highest  market  half  a  cent  to  two  and  a  half  cents  per  lb." — Tribune. 

Messrs.  Charles  R.  Huntington  tfe  Co.,  produce  commission  merchants 
in  New-York,  give  the  following  directions  to  their  consignors  for  the 
shipment  of  butter  to  them,  itc. 

"  The  best  butter  is  obtained  at  a  temperature  of  fifty-one  degrees,  and 
the  greatest  quantity  at  a  temperature  of  forty-six  degrees,  Fahr.  During 
the  process  of  churning  the  agitation  will  increase  the  heat  to  about 
five  degrees  more  than  it  was  when  the  cream  was  put  into  the  churn. 
The  operation  of  churning,  whether  it  be  of  cream  alone,  or  cream  and 
milk,  is  performed  in  the  same  manner.  The  milk  requires  more  tifne 
than  cream  to  complete  the  process,  from  two  to  three  hours  being 
considered  necessary  ;  while  cream  alone  may  be  cfi'ectually  churned  in 
an  hour  and  a  half.  The  operation  should  be  slow  in  warm  weather, 
for  if  done  too  hastily  the  butter  will  be  soft  and  white.  If  the  cream 
is  at  too  high  a  temperature,  the  churn  should  be  cooled  with  cold  spring 
water,  to  reduce  it  to  the  proper  degree  of  heat.  In  winter,  again,  the 
operation  of  churning  should  be  done  as  quickly  as  possible,  the  action 
being  regular,  and  the  churn  should  be  warmed  to  raise  the  temperature 
of  the  milk  or  cream.  The  air  which  is  generated  in  the  churn  should 
be  allowed  to  escape,  or  it  will  impede  the  progress  by  the  froth  which 
it  creates. 

"  After  the  churning  is  performed,  the  butter  should  be  w^ashed  in 
cold  spring  water,  with  a  little  salt  in  it,  two  or  three  times,  to  extract 
all  the  milk  which  may  be  lodging  about  the  mass.  The  less  milk  which 
is  in  the  butter,  its  quality  is  proportionably  improved  ;  after  all  the 
milk  has  been  carefully  extracted,  the  butter  should  be  mixed  with  the 
finest  ground  rock-salt,  in  the  proportion  of  five  ounces  to  seven  pounds. 
The  butter  and  salt  should  be  well  mixed  together  with  the  hand  or 
ladle.  This  superior  salt  for  dairy  purposes  may  always  be  obtained  at 
the  very  lowest  prices  by  addressing  your  orders  to  us. 

"Firkins  made  of  oak,  with  walnut  hoops,  to  contain  one  hundred 
pounds  of  butter,  net,  are  generally  the  most  desirable  ;  but  many  pre- 
fer Welsh  tubs,  either  ash  or  oak.  Packages  should  be  made  smooth, 
and  should  be  got  into  market  as  bright  and  cleanly  as  possible.  The 
demand  is  about  equally  divided  between  tubs  and  firkins. 

''Butter,  as  it  is  received  by  merchants  from  small  dairies,  should  be 


CATTLE.  147 

packed  down  solid,  while  it  is  frcsli  and  sweet ;  and  as  there  is  usually 
a  diversity  of  color,  g'reat  pains  should  be  taken  to  keep  each  shade  by 
itself.  To  accomplish  this,  several  packao-es  may  be  filling  at  the  same 
time,  each  one  receiving  its  respective  shade  ;  so  that  when  they  are  full, 
it  will  bore  uniform  in  color  upon  the  trier.  A  clean  linen  cloth,  thoroughly 
stiturated  with  strong  brine,  should  be  laid  on  the  top,  and  a  slight  layer 
of  moistened  salt  upon  it.  This  not  only  preserves  the  butter,  but  gives 
to  it  a  neat  appearance. 

"Nothing  pleases  commission  merchants  more  than  to  receive  a 
strictly  fine  dairy  of  butter — sweet,  yellow,  rosy  to  the  smell,  and  delicious 
to  the  taste.  It  sells  readily  at  a  satisfactory  price,  and  every  body  is 
pleased,  from  producer  to  consumer.  Common  and  inferior  butter  sticks, 
notwithstanding  its  gi-easiness,  at  every  stage,  causing  dissatisfaction  and 
trouble  from  beginning  to  end.  It  is  either  over-salted,  under-salted, 
colorless,  milky,  sticky,  strong,  rank  or  rancid,  or  all  these  combined — 
at  any  rate,  it  is  not  what  it  should  be,  and  is  consequently  unsalable." 

Cliecse  and  Cheese  Making. — In  the  making  of  cheese  there  are  certain 
general  principles  which  are  essential,  but  slight  variation  in  the  pro- 
cess produces  cheeses  of  very  different  qualities ;  and  although  the  most 
important  circumstance  is  the  nature  of  the  pasture  on  which  the  cows 
are  fed,  yet  much  depends  on  the  mode  in  which  the  different  stages  of 
the  fabrication  are  managed ;  and  hence  the  great  superiority  of  the 
cheeses  of  particular  districts  or  dairies  over  those  of  others,  without 
any  apparent  difference  in  the  pasture.  In  those  countries  where  the 
cows  are  chiefly  kept  tied  up  in  stalls,  and  are  fed  with  a  variety  of 
natural  and  artificial  grasses,  roots,  and  vegetables,  superior  cheese  is 
often  made. 

The  first  process  in  making  cheese  is  to  separate  the  curd  from  the 
whey,  which  may  be  done  by  allowing  the  milk  to  become  sour ;  but  the 
cheese  is  inferior  in  quality,  and  it  is  difficult  to  stop  the  acid  fermenta- 
tion and  prevent  its  running  into  the  putrefactive.  Various  substances 
added  to  milk  will  soon  separate  the  curd  from  the  whey.  All  acids  curdle 
milk.  Muriatic  acid  is  used  with  success  for  this  purpose  in  Holland. 
Some  vegetables  contain  acids  which  readily  coagulate  milk,  such  as  the 
juice  of  the  fig-tree,  and  the  flowers  of  the  Galium  verum,  or  yellow 
lady's  bed-straw,  hence  called  cheese-rennet.  Where  better  rennet  can- 
not be  procured,  they  may  be  substituted  for  the  best  curdler  of  milk, 
which  is  the  gastric  juice  of  the  stomach  of  a  sucking  calf.  This  juice 
rapidly  coagulates  the  milk  as  the  calf  sucks  ;  and  the  only  difficulty  is 
in  collecting  and  keeping  it  from  putrefaction,  which  begins  from  the 
instant  the  stomach  is  taken  from  the  calf.  The  preparation  of  the 
rennet,  as  it  is  called,  is  a  most  important  part  of  the  process  of  cheese- 
making.  The  following  may  be  considered  as  tlie  simplest,  and  perhaps 
the  best.  As  soon  as  a  sucking  calf  is  killed,  the  stomach  should  be 
taken  out,  and  if  the  calf  has  sucked  lately,  it  is  all  the  better.  The 
outer  skin  should  be  well  scraped,  and  all  fat  and  useless  membranes 
carefully  removed.  It  is  only  the  inner  coat  which  must  be  preserved. 
The  coagulated  milk  should  be  taken  out  and  examined ;  and  any  sub- 
stance besides  curd  found  in  it  should  be  carefully  removed.  The  serum 
left  in  it  should  be  pressed  out  with  a  cloth.     It  should  then  be  replaced 


148  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

in  the  stomach  with  a  large  quantity  of  the  best  salt.  Some  add  a  little 
alum  and  sal  prunella ;  others  put  various  herbs  and  spices,  with  a  view 
of  giving  the  cheese  a  peculiar  flavor ;  but  the  plain  simple  salting  is 
sufficient.  The  skins  or  veils,  as  they  are  called,  are  then  put  into  a  pan, 
and  covered  with  a  saturated  solution  of  salt,  in  which  they  are  soaked 
for  some  hours ;  but  there  must  be  no  more  liquor  than  will  well  mois- 
ten the  veils.  They  are  afterward  hung  up  to  dry,  a  piece  of  flat  wood 
being  put  crosswise  into  each  to  stretch  them  out.  They  should  be 
perfectly  dried  and  look  like  parchment.  In  this  state  they  may  be  kept 
in  a  dry  place  for  any  length  of  time,  and  are  always  ready  for  use.  In 
some  places,  at  the  time  of  making  cheese,  a  piece  of  veil  is  cut  off, 
and  soaked  for  some  hours  in  water  or  whey,  and  the  whole  is  added  to 
the  warm  milk.  In  other  places,  pieces  of  veil  are  put  into  a  linen  bag, 
and  soaked  in  warm  water,  until  the  water  has  acquired  sufficient 
strength,  which  is  proved  by  trying  a  portion  of  it  in  warm  milk.  The 
method  employed  in  Switzerland  is  as  follows : — a  dry  veil  is  taken 
and  examined  ;  it  is  scraped  with  a  knife,  and  where  any  veins  or  pieces 
of  tough  membrane  appear,  they  are  removed.  The  whole  surface  is 
examined  and  washed  carefully,  if  any  dust  or  dirt  has  adhered  to  it; 
but  otherwise  it  is  only  wiped  with  a  cloth.  A  handful  of  salt  is  then 
put  into  it,  and  the  edges  of  the  veil  are  folded  over  and  secured  with  a 
wooden  skewer  stuck  through  it.  In  this  state  it  forms  a  ball  of  about 
three  inches  diameter,  and  is  laid  to  soak  twenty-four  hours  in  a  dish 
containing  about  a  quart  of  clear  whe}^,  which  has  been  boiled,  and  all 
the  curd  taken  out.  The  next  day  the  veil  is  well  squeezed,  and  put 
into  fresh  whey;  the  first  infusion  being  put  into  a  proper  vessel,  the 
second  is  afterward  mixed  with  it,  and  bottled  for  use.  Ilalf  a  pint  of 
this  liquor,  of  a  proper  strength,  is  sufficient  to  curdle  forty  gallons  of 
milk.  Experience  alone  enables  the  dairyman  to  judge  of  the  strength 
of  his  rennet ;  for  this  purpose  he  takes  in  a  flat  ladle  some  milk  which 
Las  been  heated  to  about  ninety-five  degrees  of  Fahr.,  and  adds  a  small 
measure  of  rennet.  By  the  rapidity  with  which  it  curdles,  and  by  the 
form  of  the  flakes  produced,  he  knows  its  exact  strength,  and  puts  more 
or  less  into  the  caldron  in  which  the  milk  is  heated  for  curdling. 

There  are  different  kinds  of  cheese,  according  to  the  mode  of  pre- 
paring it :  soft  and  rich  cheeses  are  not  intended  to  be  kept  long ;  hard 
and  dry  cheeses  are  adapted  to  be  kept  and  stored  for  provisions.  Of 
the  first  kind  are  all  cream  cheeses,  and  those  soft  cheeses,  called  Bath 
cheeses  and  Yorkshire  cheeses,  which  are  sold  as  soon  as  made,  and  if 
kept  too  long  become  soft  and  putrid.  Stilton  and  Gruyere  cheeses  are 
intermediate;  Parmesan,  Dutch,  Cheshire,  Gloucestershire,  and  similar 
cheeses,  are  intended  for  longer  keeping.  The  poorer  the  cheese  is,  the 
longer  it  will  keep ;  and  all  cheese  that  is  well  cleared  from  whey,  and 
sufficiently  salted,  will  keep  for  years.  The  small  Dutch  cheeses,  called 
Edam  cheeses,  are  admirably  adapted  for  keeping,  and  form  an  important 
article  in  the  victualing  of  ships. 

The  Gruyere  and  Parmesan  cheeses  only  differ  in  the  nature  of  the 
milk,  and  in  the  degree  of  heat  given  to  the  curd  in  different  parts  of 
the  process.  Gruyere  cheese  is  entirely  made  from  new  milk,  and  Par- 
mesan from  skimmed  milk.     In  the  first  nothing  is  added  to  give  flavor : 


CATTLE.  149 

in  the  latter  saffron  gives  both  color  and  flavor;  the  process  in  both  is 
exactly  similar.  A  large  caldron,  in  the  shape  of  a  bell,  capable  of 
holding  from  GO  to  120  gallons  of  milk,  hangs  from  an  iron  crane  over 
a  hearth  where  a  wood  fire  is  made.  The  rnilk,  having  been  strained, 
is  put  into  this  caldron,  and  heated  to  nearly  blood-heat  (95°  to  100°). 
It  is  then  turned  off  the  fire,  and  some  rennet,  prepared  as  stated  above, 
is  intimately  mixed  with  the  warm  milk  by  stirring  it  with  the  hand,  in 
which  is  held  a  flat  wooden  skimming-dish,  which  is  turned  round  in  the 
milk  while  the  hand  and  arm  stir  it.  A  cloth  is  then  laid  over  the  cal- 
dron, and  in  half  an  hour,  more  or  less,  the  coagulum  is  formed.  This 
is  ascertaitied  by  pressing  the  skimming-dish  on  the  surface,  when  the 
whey  will  appear  on  the  part  pressed.  If  it  is  longer  than  an  hour  in 
coagulating,  ihe  milk  has  been  too  cool,  or  the  rennet  not  strong  enough. 
When  the  curd  is  properly  formed,  it  is  cut  horizontally  in  thin  slices  by 
the  same  skimming-ladle.  Each  slice,  as  it  is  taken  off,  is  poured  along 
the  side  of  the  caldron  which  is  nearest  to  the  operator;  by  this  means 
every  portion  of  the  curd  rises  successively  to  the  surfece,  and  is  sliced 
thin.  The  whole  is  then  well  stirred,  and  the  caldron  is  replaced  over 
the  fire.  A  long  staft',  w^th  a  small  knob  of  hard  wood  at  the  end,  and 
which  has  smaller  cross  pieces  or  sticks  passed  through  holes  in  it  at 
right  angles  to  each  other  near  the  end,  is  now  used  to  stir  and  break 
the  curd,  and  the  heat  is  raised  to  about  135°,  which  is  as  hot  as  the 
arm  can  well  bear,  even  when  used  to  it.  The  caldron  is  again  swung 
off  the  fire,  and  the  curd  is  stirred  with  the  staff,  which  is  moved  round 
with  a  regular  rotatory  motion,  the  knob  running  along  the  angle  formed 
with  the  side  by  the  bottom  of  the  caldron,  which  is  in  the  form  of  a 
bowl.  After  stirring  in  this  manner  nearly  an  hour,  the  curd  is  found 
divided  into  small  dies  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  which  feel  elastic  and 
rather  tough  under  the  finger.  Experience  alone  can  teach  the  exact 
feel  they  should  have.  The  whey,  of  which  a  portion  is  removed  oc- 
casionally, now  floats  at  top,  and  the  curd  is  collected  in  the  bottom  by 
giving  a  very  rapid  rotatory  motion  to  the  contents  of  the  caldron  by 
means  of  the  staff'.  A  cloth  is  now  introduced  into  the  bottom,  and  all 
the  curd  collected  over  it;  it  is  raised  by  the  four  corners,  and  laid  on 
an  instrument  like  a  small  ladder,  which  is  placed  across  the  mouth  of 
the  caldron.  The  whey  runs  out  through  the  cloth,  which  is  a  common 
cheese-cloth,  woven  with  wide  interstices;  and  the  curd  in  the  cloth  is 
placed  in  a  shape  or  hoop,  made  of  a  slip  of  wood,  four  inches  and  a 
half  wide,  the  two  ends  of  which  lie  over  each  other,  so  that  the  di- 
ameter can  be  increased  or  lessened.  A  cord  fixed  to  one  end  of  the 
hoop  is  passed  with  a  loop  over  hooks  on  the  outer  surface  of  the  other 
end,  and  prevents  the  ring  from  opening  more  than  is  required.  The 
curd  is  pressed  into  this  ring  with  the  hands,  and  the  ends  of  the  cloth 
are  folded  over  it.  A  round  board,  two  inches  thick,  and  strengthened 
by  cross  pieces  nailed  on  it,  is  placed  over  the  curd,  and  the  press  let 
down  upon  it. 

During  the  next  six  or  eight  weeks  the  cheeses  are  turned  and  wiped 
every  day,  and  a  small  quantity  of  fine  salt  is  sifted  on  the  surface,  and 
rubbed  in  with  the  hand  until  they  will  take  no  more.  The  cheese-room 
is  always  very  cool,  and  little  light  is  admitted.      A  free  circulation  of 

42 


150  DOMESTIC   ANi:iIALS. 

air  is  essential.  The  cheeses  are  in  perfection  in  about  six  months,  and 
will  keep  two  years.  A  quantity  of  elastic  fluid  is  disenpfaged  in  the 
ripening,  and  forms  those  round  eyes  which  are  a  peculiar  feature  in 
these  cheeses.  The  smaller  and  rounder  the  eyes,  the  better  the  cheese 
is  reckoned.  They  should  contain  a  clear  salt  liquor,  which  is  called 
the  tears ;  when  these  dry  up,  the  cheese  loses  its  flavor. 

In  Cheshire  the  making  of  cheese  is  carried  on  in  great  perfection, 
and  the  greatest  pains  are  taken  to  extract  every  particle  of  whey.  For 
this  purpose,  the  curd  is  repeatedly  broken  and  mixed,  the  cheeses  are 
much  pressed,  and  placed  in  wooden  boxes,  which  have  holes  bored 
into  them.  Through  these  holes  sharp  skewers  are  stuck  into  the  cheese 
in  every  direction,  so  that  no  particle  of  whey  can  remain  in  the  curd. 
The  elastic  matter  formed  also  escapes  through  these  channels,  and  the 
whole  cheese  is  a  solid  mass  without  holes,  which  in  this  cheese  would 
be  looked  upon  as  a  great  defect.  The  salt  is  intimately  mixed  with 
the  curd,  and  not  merely  rubbed  on  the  outside.  This  checks  internal 
fermentation,  and  prevents  the  formation  of  elastic  matter. 

Gloucester  and  Somersetshire  cheeses  are  similarly  made,  with  this 
diff'erence,  that  the  curd  is  not  so  often  broken  or  the  cheese  skewered; 
and  a  portion  of  the  cream  is  generally  abstracted  to  make  butter. 
After  the  curd  has  been  separated  from  the  whey,  and  is  broken  fine, 
warm  water  is  poured  over  it,  for  the  purpose  of  washing  out  any  re- 
maining whey,  or  perhaps  to  dissolve  any  portion  of  butter  which  may 
have  separated  before  the  rennet  had  coagulated  the  milk. 

Stilton  cheese  is  made  by  adding  the  cream  of  the  preceding  even- 
ing's milk  to  the  morning's  milking.  The  cream  should  be  intimately 
incorporated  with  the  new  milk;  great  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
temperature  of  both,  as  much  of  the  quality  of  the  cheese  depends  on 
this  part  of  the  process.  To  make  this  cheese  in  perfection,  as  much 
depends  on  the  management  of  the  cheese  after  it  is  made  as  on  the 
richness  of  the  milk.  Each  dair3^-w^oman  has  some  peculiar  method 
which  she  considers  the  best;  and  it  is  certain  that  there  is  the  greatest 
diff'erence  between  cheeses  made  in  contiguous  dairies.  The  rennet 
should  be  very  pure  and  sweet.  When  the  milk  is  coagulated,  the  whole 
curd  is  taken  out,  drained  on  a  sieve,  and  very  moderately  pressed.  It 
is  then  put  into  a  shape  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder,  eight  or  nine  inches 
in  diameter,  the  axis  of  which  is  longer  than  the  diameter  of  the  base. 
When  it  is  sufficiently  firm,  a  cloth  or  tape  is  wound  round  it  to  prevent 
its  breaking,  and  it  is  set  out  on  a  shelf.  It  is  occasionally  powdered 
with  flour,  and  plunged  into  hot  water.  This  hardens  the  outer  coat, 
and  favors  the  internal  fermentation  which  ripens  it.  Stilton  cheese  is 
generally  preferred  when  a  green  mould  appears  in  its  texture.  To  ac- 
celerate this,  pieces  of  a  mouldy  cheese  are  sometimes  inserted  into 
holes  made  for  the  purpose  by  the  scoop,  called  a  taster^  and  wine  or  ale 
is  poured  over  for  the  same  purpose ;  but  the  best  cheeses  do  not  re- 
quire this,  and  are  in  perfection  when  the  inside  becomes  soft  like  but- 
ter, without  any  appearance  of  inouldiness.  In  making  very  rich  cheeses, 
the  whey  must  be  allowed  to  run  off"  slowly,  because,  if  it  were  forced 
rapidly,  it  might  carry  off"  a  great  portion  of  the  fat  of  the  cheese.  This 
happens  more  or  less  in  every  mode  of  making  cheese.     To  collect 


CATTLE.  151 

this  snperabnndant  butter,  the  whey  is  set  in  sLallow  pans,  as  is  done 
with  milk  when  butter  is  made;  and  an  inferior  kind  of  butter  called 
whey-butter  is  made  from  the  cream  of  fat  skimmed  off". 

Cheeses  are  frequently  colored — a  practice  which  probably  arose  from 
the  notion  of  making  the  cheese  look  richer;  but  now  it  deceives  no 
one.  Yet  if  some  cheeses  were  not  colored  they  would  not  be  so  market- 
able, owing  to  the  association  that  subsists  between  the  color  and  the 
quality  of  the  cheese.  The  substance  used  for  coloring  is  most  com- 
monly anatto.  It  is  ground  fine  on  a  stone,  and  mixed  with  the  milk  at 
the  time  the  rennet  is  put  in.  'J  he  juice  of  the  orange  carrot,  and  the 
flower  of  marigold,  are  also  used  for  this  purpose.  Cheddar,  a  cheese 
made  in  Somersetshire,  which  is  highly  prized,  Stilton,  Derby,  and  some 
other  cheeses,  are  never  colored ;  Cheshire  slightly ;  but  Gloucester  and 
North  Wiltshire  deeply.  Foreign  cheeses  are  only  colored  very  slightly, 
if  at  all.  The  Dutch  cheeses  are  made  in  a  very  similar  manner  to  the 
Gloucester  cheeses,  but  the  milk  is  generally  curdled  by  means  of  mu- 
riatic acid,  or  spirits  of  salt;  and  great  care  is  taken  to  prevent  fer- 
mentation, and  to  extract  the  whole  of  the  whey.  For  this  purpose  the 
curd  is  repeatedly  broken  and  pressed  ;  and  before  it  is  made  up  into 
the  round  shape  in  which  it  is  usually  sold,  the  broken  curd  is  well 
soaked  in  a  strong  solution  of  common  salt  in  water.  This  diffuses  the 
salt  throughout  the  whole  mass,  and  effectually  checks  fermentation. 
When  the  cheeses  are  finally  pressed,  all  the  whey  which  may  remain  is 
washed  out  with  the  brine  ;  salt  is  likewise  rubbed  over  the  outside,  and 
they  are  set  to  dry  on  shelves  in  a  cool  place.  The  flavor  of  the  cheese 
is  perhaps  impaired  by  the  stoppage  of  the  fermentation ;  but  it  never 
heaves,  and  it  acquires  the  valuable  quality  of  keeping  well  even  in 
warm  climates.  From  the  place  where  this  cheese  is  commonly  made, 
it  is  known  by  the  name  of  Edam  cheese.  A  finer  cheese  is  made  at 
Gouda  and  other  places,  by  imitating  the  process  in  making  Gruyere 
cheese;  but  this  cheese  is  always  full  of  small  cavities,  and  will  not 
keep  so  long  as  the  Edam.  The  cheese  most  commonly  met  with  in 
Holland  is  a  large  kind  of  skim-milk  cheese,  which  is  made  very  like 
Chesliire  cheese.  It  grows  hard  and  dry,  and  has  not  much  flavor.  To 
supply  this  defect,  cummin  seeds  are  mixed  with  the  curd,  which  those 
who  are  accustomed  to  it  consider  a  great  improvement.  On  the  whole, 
it  is  a  better  cheese  than  our  Suffolk  skim-milk  cheese,  and  forms  an 
important  part  of  the  provisions  usually  stored  for  a  Dutch  family.  In 
France,  the  Roquefort  cheese  is  compared  to  our  Stilton,  but  is  much 
inferior,  although  a  good  cheese.  The  little  cheeses  made  from  cream 
and  folded  in  paper,  called  Neufchatel  cheeses,  are  imported  from  France 
as  a  delicacy.  They  can  be  easily  imitated,  being  nothing  more  than 
cream  thickened  by  heat,  and  pressed  in  a  small  mould.  They  undergo 
a  rapid  change,  first  becoming  sour  and  then  mellow,  in  which  state  they 
must  be  eaten. 

The  green  Swiss  cheese,  commonly  called  Schahzieger,  is  produced  in 
the  Canton  of  Glarus.  The  curd  is  pressed  in  boxes,  with  holes  to  let  the 
whey  run  out ;  and  when  a  considerable  quantity  has  been  collected, 
and  putrefaction  begins,  it  is  worked  into  a  paste  with  a  large  propor- 
tion of  a  certain  dried  herb  reduced  to  powder.     This  herb,  called  in 


152  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

the  country  dialect  Zieger  kraut  (curd  herb),  is  the  MeUlotus  officinalis, 
which  is  very  common  in  most  countries,  and  has  a  peculiar  aromatic 
flavor  in  the  mountains  of  Switzerland.  The  paste  thus  produced  is 
pressed  into  moulds  of  the  shape  of  a  common  flower-pot,  and  the  pu- 
trefaction being  stopped  by  the  aromatic  herb,  it  di-ies  into  a  solid  mass, 
which  keeps  unchanged  for  any  length  of  time.  When  used,  it  is  rasped 
or  scraped,  and  the  powder,  mixed  with  fresh  butter,  is  spread  upon 
bread.  It  is  either  much  relished  or  much  disliked,  like  all  those  sub- 
stances which  have  a  peculiar  taste  and  smell. 

When  a  cheese  which  has  been  much  salted  and  kept  very  dry  is 
washed  several  times  in  soft  water,  and  then  laid  in  a  cloth  moistened 
with  wine  or  vinegar,  it  gradually  loses  its  saltness,  and  from  being  hard 
and  dry,  becomes  soft  and  mellow,  provided  it  be  a  rich  cheese.  This 
simple  method  of  improving  cheese  is  worth  know'ing.  It  is  generally 
practiced  in  Switzerland,  where  cheeses  are  kept  stored  for  many  years, 
and  if  they  were  not  very  salt  and  dry  they  would  soon  be  the  prey  of 
worms  and  mites.     A  dry  Stilton  cheese  may  thus  be  much  improved. 

Tlie  Lactometer. — This  instrument  is  designed  to  test  the  cream  qual- 
ities of  milk.  Pour  the  milk  into  the  tubes,  and  the  cream,  when  risen, 
will  show  how  rich  the  milk  is.  The  depth  of  cream  will  be  shown  by 
the  figures  on  the  tubes.  By  the  lactometer  the  diff"erence  in  the 
quality  of  the  milk  of  different  cows  may  be  readily  ascertained. 

The  qualities  of  cream  vary  much  in  the  different  breeds,  depending 
on  the  modes  of  management,  as  well  as  the  food.  Thus,  in  some 
experiments  made,  it  required  twelve  quarts  from  a  short-horn  cow  to 
produce  one  pound  of  butter — something  like  a  day's  supply  of  milk ; 
while  nine  and  a  half  quarts  of  an  Ayrshire  cow's  would  give  the  same 
quantity;  but  it  is  often  very  variable  in  the  same  animal  at  different 
periods,  and  different  animals  of  the  same  breed  will  produce  very 
different  results  both  in  cream  and  butter. 

Profits  of  the  Cow. — Our  first  illustration  is  from  Mr.  Thomas  Tufts,  of 
Le  Roy,  Genesee  county,  N.  Y.  On  the  1st  of  November,  1838,  he 
says:  "I  have  a  cow  six  years  old  last  spring.  On  the  29th  of  May  she 
brought  a  calf;  and  on  the  27th  of  June  I  took  from  her  at  three  milk- 
ings,  morning,  noon,  and  night,  of  one  day,  thii'ty-one  and  a  half  quarts 
of  good  rich  measured  milk,  which  was  not  more  than  an  average  for 
the  whole  month.  The  last  week  in  July,  I  found  that  her  milk  failed 
a  little,  and  being  some  trouble,  I  stopped  milking  her  three  times  a 
a  day.  On  the  last  day  of  July,  at  two  milkings,  twenty-four  quarts ; 
on  the  last  day  of  August,  twenty-one  and  a  half  quarts;  on  the  last 
day  of  September,  eighteen  quarts;  and  on  the  31st  day  of  October,  I 
took  from  her  fifteen  quarts.  She  had  no  feed  but  that  of  common 
pasture,  in  which,  however,  was  plenty  of  good  Avater  and  shade,  from 
the  first  of  June  till  the  last  of  September,  and  lodged  at  night  in  the 
barn-yard.  On  the  1st  of  October  she  was  turned  into  a  mowing-field; 
and  during  the  last  week  in  that  month  was  fed  once  a  day  on  hay,  and 
twice  a  day  on  ruta-baga  tops." 

In  July,  1845,  a  writer  in  the  Agriculturist  says  :  "  I  have  a  cow  that 
calved  about  the  middle  of  January,  and  is  now  eleven  years  old.  The 
calf  I  fattened  in  the  following  manner  :  the  first  week  I  gave  it  one 


CATTLE.  153 

teat;  the  second  week,  two;  afterwcard,  three.  The  calf  was  sold  for 
nearly  six  dollars;  and  in  the  mean  time,  milk  to  the  amount  of  ^l.'Zo. 
Since  that  time  I  have  realized  for  milk  sold  between  fourteen  and  fif- 
teen dollars  ;  making  the  profit  of  the  cow  thus  far,  the  present  year, 
nearly  twenty-three  dollars,  besides  what  I  used  in  my  own  family,  con- 
sisting of  eight  persons."  Dr.  Woodward  informed  the  editor  of  the 
same  journal  that  lie  had  a  cow  which,  in  the  year  1844,  gave  one 
thousand  and  fifty  gallons  of  milk,  which,  at  four  cents  a  quart,  would 
amount  to  one  hundred  and  sixty-eight  dollars.  He  also  had,  on  the 
Hospital  Farm,  Worcester,  Massachusetts,  several  other  cows  nearly  as 
good.  And  William  Cushman,  of  New  Braintree,  in  that  state,  savs, 
July  14th,  1845  :  "  I  have  a  cow  wdiich  has  given,  for  ten  davs  in  June, 
from  fifty-four  and  a  half  to  sixty-three  pounds  of  milk  per  day."  She 
was  one-fourth  of  the  Durham  breed. 

Peter  H.  Schenck,  formerly  a  merchant  of  New  York,  but  having  a 
country  residence  in  Dutchess  county,  in  October,  1843,  says:  '•  Mv 
cow  Emma  was  nine  years  old  last  spring  ;  and  till  the  summer  of  1842 
I  never  kept  her  milk  separate  from  that  of  three  other  cows  I  have. 
Then  I  made  the  experiment  for  one  week,  during  which  she  gave 
eighteen  quarts  per  day,  and  the  milk  made  fifteen  pounds  of  butter." 
On  the  21st  of  the  following  May — that  is,  1843 — he  renewed  the  ex- 
periment, and  for  the  three  weeks  ensuing  she  made  sixty-five  and  a 
half  pounds  of  butter.  On  the  15th  of  June,  that  same  year,  the  milk 
that  came  from  her  was  churned  by  itself,  and  the  butter  weighed  three 
pounds  eight  ounces.  The  next  day  her  butter  weighed  three  pounds 
four  ounces. 

In  1843,  a  gentleman  in  the  neighborhood  of  Troy,  New  York,  says: 
"  George  Yail,  Esq.,  of  that  city,  was  the  owner  of  two  cows  only,  one  a 
full-blooded  Durham,  seven  or  eight  years  old,  and  the  other  four  years 
old,  seven-eighths  Durham.  He  kept  an  accurate  account  of  their  milk 
and  butter  for  thirty  days.  The  result  was  as  follows:  one  hundred 
and  eight  pounds  of  butter,  besides  supplying  a  family  of  five  persons 
with  new  milk  and  cream  for  ordinary  family  use,  and  nine  quarts  of 
new  milk  daily  for  a  calf  The  average  weight  of  milk  per  day,  from 
the  oldest  cow,  was  sixty-eight  pounds,  and  from  the  other,  sixty  pounds, 
during  the  thirty  days.  In  the  same  year.  Judge  Walbridge,  of  Ithaca, 
in  that  state,  had  a  cow  that  gave  in  the  seven  days  ending  June  24th, 
three  hundred  and  ninety-five  pounds  ten  ounces  of  milk,  being  an 
average  of  fifty-six  and  a  half  pounds  per  day,  or  twenty-eight  and  a 
half  quarts  per  day.  She  had  made  two  pounds  one  ounce  per  day, 
when  two  quarts  of  the  milk  were  taken  for  family  use.  And  the  He  v. 
AYilliam  Wisner,  in  the  same  neighborhood,  had  a  cow,  that  in  May  of 
fne  same  year  made  forty-seven  pounds  of  butter,  and  supplied  two 
families  with  new  milk  daily,  during  the  time." 

.  Among  the  more  recent  statistics  of  the  dairy,  the  two  following  are 
selected.  The  first  is  from  the  Exetor  Neivs-Leiter^  which  says:  "Mr. 
Abraham  Rowe,  of  Kensington,  N.  IL,  has  a  cow  he  raised  from  an 
Eastern  breed,  six  years  old,  from  wdiich  was  made,  between  the  20th 
of  May  and  the  20th  of  October,  1849,  one  hundred  and  fifty-six 
pounds  of  butter,  avera^ring  over  one  pound  a  dav  from  pasture  feed 


154  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

only.  It  being  his  only  cow,  furnished  his  family  with  their  cream  and 
milk  besides."  The  second  is  from  the  Farmer  and  Mechanic,  which 
says  :  "  The  best  cow  now  in  the  United  States  is  probably  owned  near 
Geneva,  N.  Y.,  which  through  the  month  of  June,  1849,  gave  forty-two 
quarts  of  milk  per  day;  and  for  five  days  she  gave  forty-five  quarts  per 
day.     The  cow  is  half  Durham  and  half  of  the  native  breed." 

The  Somerset  Messenger,  New  Jersey,  contains  a  communication 
from  J.  W.  Van  Arsdale,  stating  the  profits  of  a  half-blooded  Durham 
cow  owned  by  him,  for  ten  months  from  the  1st  of  April,  1849,  to  the 
1st  of  February  following.  He  sold  in  that  time  to  the  retailer  3,022 
quarts,  at  2  and  2\  cents  a  quart,  amounting  to  870.51,  besides  reserv- 
ing a  suflicient  quantity  for  the  use  of  his  family  of  eleven  persons,  and 
about  two  messes  of  milk  twice  a  week  for  baking  purposes.  The  3,022 
quarts  were  sold  by  the  retailer  at  double  the  price  he  gave  for  it,  that 
is,  for  $141.02.  He  calculates  that  this  amount  of  milk  would  have  made 
302  pounds  of  butter,  which,  at  20  cents  a  pound,  amounts  to  $60.40. 
The  cow  has  not  had  extraordinary  care — having  had  two  quarts  of  oat 
and  corn  meal  per  day  during  the  drought  last  summer,  and  three  quarts 
last  spring  before  grass  and  this  winter.  And  a  farmer  in  Essex  county, 
in  that  state,  realized  during  twelve  months  previous  to  February  1st, 
1850,  a  net  profit  of  $456.09  from  three  ordinary  cows — animals  of  the 
common  breed  of  the  country — that  in  most  other  hands  would  not 
probably  much  more  than  have  paid  for  their  keeping.  As  it  is,  they 
have  supplied  the  family  with  all  their  milk  and  cream,  paid  for  their 
keeping  in  full,  as  appears  by  a  minute  daily  account,  and  yielded  the 
above-named  profit  of  $456.09. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  gather  up  more  similar  cases.  Our  agricultural 
journals  are  filled  with  them.  Now,  suppose  a  farmer  resolve  that  he 
would  keep  no  cow  that  did  not  hold  out  a  good  milker  nine  months  in 
the  year,  and  that  did  not  give  sixteen  quarts  of  milk  per  day  for  two 
months  after  calving,  twelve  quarts  per  day  for  the  next  four  months,  six 
quarts  per  day  for  the  next  three  months,  and  two  quarts  per  day  for  the 
following  month  ;  such  a  cow  would  yield  per  annum  3,000  quarts  of 
milk,  which,  at  four  cents  a  quart,  would  be  $120.  Considering  the  cases 
above  given,  is  not  this  feasible?  With  such  cows,  what  if  it  does  cost 
five  or  ten  dollars  a  year  more  to  keep  them  than  is  ordinarily  expended 
for  the  purpose?  May  not  such  cows  be  raised?  No  matter  if  they 
do  cost  fifty  or  sixty  dollars  each  ;  they  soon  pay  for  themselves. 

If  the  various  modes  of  obtaining  this  object  were  resorted  to  at  once 
throughout  the  country,  there  would  be  a  vast  improvement  in  a  very 
short  time.  No  young  animal  of  promising  appearance  for  milk  would 
go  to  the  butcher.  More  care  would  be  taken  of  young  stock.  More 
young  stock  would  be  retained  to  insure  a  better  selection  for  milk  cows. 
Farmers  would  think  more  of  the  advantages  of  employing  the  im- 
proved breed.  Heifers  would  be  milked  with  great  care  and  very  thor- 
oughly, to  get  them  in  the  habit  of  holding  out  longer  as  milkers.  If 
they  once  dry  early,  no  care  and  keeping  will  afterward  correct  the 
fault.  Heifers  with  the  first  calf,  especially,  should  be  well  fed,  and  with 
some  additional  care,  the  last  three  months  they  are  in  milk,  to  make 
them  hold  out. 


CATTLE.  155 

It  is  supposed  that  a  milk  cow  of  medium  quality,  in  tliis  part  of  the 
country,  will  give  twelve  quarts  of  milk  for  two  months  after  calvinir, 
seven  quarts  per  day  on  grass  for  the  next  four  .nonths,  four  quarts  per 
day  for  tlie  following  two  months,  and  perhaps  two  quarts  per  day  for 
one  month  more;   making  altogetljer  1,500  quarts  in  the  year.* 

THE  SPAYING  OF  COWS.f— A'  land-owner  in  the  United  States,  Mr. 
AYinn,  seems  to  have  had  the  first  practice  in  spaying  cows.  The  ob- 
ject of  the  operation  was  to  maintain  in  the  cow,  without  interruption, 
a  supply  of  the  same  quantity  of  milk  that  she  gave  at  the  time  of  spav- 
ing.  Notwithstanding  the  favorable  results  that  Mr.  Winn  claimed  to 
have  obtained,  the  operation  remained  almost  unknown  in  France  until 
a  veterinary  surgeon  of  Lausanne  (a  Swiss),  M.  Levrat,  made  known  the 
experiments  practiced  by  him,  and  their  effects.  The  treatise  of  M. 
Levrat  ends  with  the  follow^ing  conclusions: 

"  The  effect  of  spaying  seems  to  me  to  be,  to  cause  a  more  abundant  and 
constant  secretion  of  milk,  which  possesses  also  superior  qualities,  whence 
the  following  advantages  result  to  the  proprietor  : 

"  1.  An  increase  of  one  third  in  the  quantity  of  milk. 

"  2.  The  certainty  of  having  almost  constantly  the  same  quantity  of 
milk. 

"  3.  Exemption  from  accidents  which  may  happen  during  tlie  period 
of  heat,  when  the  cows  mount  each  other,  or  are  covered  by  too  larc-e 
bulls. 

"  4.  Exemption  from  the  risk  of  accidents  which  sometimes  accom- 
pany or  follow  gestation  and  calving. 

"  5.  Ease  in  fatting  cows,  when  their  milk  begins  to  dry  up. 

"  6.  Li  fine,  spaying  is  the  only  means  of  preventing  onerous  expenses, 
occasioned  by  cows  becoming  '  taurelieres,''  which  is  so  frequently  the 
case  in  some  countries,  that  it  is  rare  to  see  cows  kept  more  than  two 
or  three  years  without  getting  in  this  state;  as,  for  example,  in  the  en- 
virons of  Lausanne  and  Lavaux,  where  they  are  obliged  for  this  reason 
to  change  all  their  cows  every  two  or  three  years,  which  is  quite  ruin- 
ous." 

M.  Levrat  confirmed,  after  a  year's  observations,  this  fact,  that  the 
quantity  of  milk  was  constantly  j^ept  the  same  after  the  time  of  spaying. 

M.  Regere,  veterinary  surgeon  at  Bordeaux,  inserted  in  the  Bee iieil  cle 
Medecine  Veterinaire,  a  series  of  facts  upon  the  spaying  of  cows,  that 
had  been  acted  npon  by  various  proprietors. 

It  appears  from  these  facts,  which  he  recounts  with  many  details,  an.d 
whose  authenticity  is  fixed,  that  the  spayed  cows  have  given,  without 
interruption,  after  the  operation,  a  quantity  of  milk  at  least  double  the 
average  of  what  they  gave  during  the  preceding  years.  "After  the 
researches  that  I  have  made  since  I  commenced  all  these  experiments, 
to  the  present  time,"  says  M.  Regere,  "this  calculation  is  verv  exact,  and 
if  the  cows  continue  to  give  milk  during  their  whole  life,  in  like  manner, 

*  "  Farmer's  Eveniug  Day-Book." 

f  Statement  of  M.  P.  A.  Morin,  'Veterinary  Surgeon  at  the  Eoyal  Depot  at  Lang- 
onnet.  Translated  for  the  Working  Farmer^  from  '■  La  Normandle  Agricole  Journal 
d' Agriculture  Pratique^ 


156  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

the  operation  of  spaying  will  furnisli  incontestable  advantages,  particu- 
larly in  large  cities,  and  their  vicinity,  where  fodder  is  very  dear,  and 
where  milk  always  seLs  well." 

A  remark  made  by  MM.  Levret  and  Regere  is,  that  some  cows,  al- 
though they  have  been  spayed,  have  had  their  heat,  notwithstanding 
the  removal  of  their  ovarium,  and  the  incapacity  for  their  reproduction. 
These  animals  present,  at  the  time  of  their  heat,  this  difference  from 
what  we  remark  during  the  same  period  in  cows  not  spayed,  that  their 
milk  does  not  undergo  any  alteration  in  either  quantity  or  quality. 

We  may  add,  that  the  school  of  Alfort  has,  recently,  practiced  this 
operation  upon  different  cows,  and  that  all  the  results  obtained  have 
reached  the  point  we  have  above  stated. 

Leaving  this,  we  arrive  at  the  facts  determined  by  M.  Morin  : 

"Young  cows  ought  to  receive  that  nourishment  which  favors  the  se- 
cretion of  milk,  and  which  in  consequence  renders  active  their  lactifer- 
ous vessels.  The  cow  is  not  usually  in  full  production  until  after  the 
third  or  fourth  calf;  she  continues  to  give  the  same  return  up  to  the 
seventh  or  eighth ;  from  this  time  lactation  diminishes  after  each  new 
calving.  On  the  other  hand,  from  the  moment  that  the  cow  has  re- 
ceived the  bull,  and  gradually  as  gestation  advances,  the  quantity  of 
milk  progressively  diminishes  in  most  breeds,  until  three  or  four  months 
before  healthy  parturition,  the  secretion  of  milk  is  almost  nothing.  It 
is  to  guard  against  this  loss,  and  other  inconveniences,  that  we  lay  down 
what  we  have  obtained  after  some  years'  experience  in  spaying  the  cow, 
and  the  happy  results  that  we  meet  Avith  daily. 

"Of  the  Spaying  of  the  Cow,  an  I  the  Advantages  of  this  Operation. — 

The  operation  of  spaying  in  the  cow  is  productive  of  great  advantages. 

"  1.  The  cow  spayed  a  short  time  after  calving,  that  is  to  say,  thirty 
or  forty  days  afterward,  and  at  the  time  when  she  gives  the  largest 
quantity  of  milk,  continues  to  give  the  like  quantity,  if  not  during  her 
whole  lifetime,  at  least  during  many  years,  and  at  the  time  when  the 
milk  begins  to  dry  up  the  animal  fattens.  We  are  able  to  add,  more- 
over, at  this  day,  certain  facts,  the  result  of  many  years'  experiment, 
that  the  milk  of  the  spayed  cow,  although  as  abundant,  and  sometimes 
more  so,  than  before  the  operation,  is  of  a  superior  quality  to  that  from 
a  cow  not  spayed;  that  it  is  uniform  in  its  character,  that  it  is  richer, 
consequently  more  buttery,  and  that  the  butter  is  always  of  a  golden 
color. 

"  We  believe  that  we  ouglit  to  remark  in  passing,  that  if  we  feed  the 
spayed  cow  too  abundantly,  lactation  diminishes,  and  that  the  beast 
promptly  fattens.  It  is  therefore  important  that  the  feeding  should  not 
be  more  than  sufficient  to  enable  us  to  obtain  the  desired  result. 

"  2.  The  spayed  cow  fattens  more  easily ;  its  flesh,  age  considered,  is 
better  than  that  of  the  ox  ;  it  is  more  tender  and  more  juicy. 

"  Indeed,  no  one  is  ignorant  of  the  fact  that  all  domestic  animals, 
females  as  well  as  males,  deprived  of  their  procreative  organs,  fatten 
more  quickly  than  those  which  retain  them;  that  the  flesh  of  the 
spayed  lemales  is  more  tender  and  more  delicate  than  that  of  males. 
The  same  phenomena  take  place  among  spayed  cows  that  occur  among 
other  females  that  have  submitted  to  this  operation  ;  so,  besides  the 


CATTLE.  157 

advanta2:e  of  fnrm'sliing  a  long-continued  snpp!}',  before  commencing  a 
course  of  fattening,  of  abundant  milk,  and  butter  of  a  superior  quality, 
the  cow  fattens  easily  and  completely,  and  a  certain  benefit  follows  this 
course. 

"  3.  In  spaying  decrepit  cows,  that  is  to  say,  of  the  age  of  from  six 
to  seven  years,  puny,  small  ones ;  those  which,  though  fine  in  appear- 
ance, bear  badly  ;  those  which  are  subject  to  miscarriage;  those  which 
frequently  experience  difficult  calving,  or  delivery  ;  those  difficult  to 
keep;  and  finally,  all  those  that  are  taurelieren — that  is  to  say,  con- 
stantly in  heat — we  have,  in  addition  to  an  abundant  production  of  milk 
and  butter,  and  a  facility  of  fattening,  the  advantage  of  preventing  a 
degeneration  of  the  species,  and,  moreover,  of  avoiding  a  crowd  of  ac- 
cidents or  maladies  which  frequently  take  place  during  or  after  gestation, 
and  of  diminishing  those  which  happen  during  the  period  of  heat,  such 
as  that  of  heavy  cows  mounting  others,  or  being  jumped  upon  by  too 
heavy  bulls. 

"  Except  under  peculiar  circumstances,  we  should  take  care  in  spaying 
the  cow  that  its  teats  have  acquired  their  complete  development,  and 
that  the  milk  has  the  proper  qualities.  The  most  suitable  time  is  after 
the  third  or  fourth  calving. 

"Many  societies  of  agriculture,  impressed  with  the  important  results 
that  this  operation  effects,  fix  yearly  at  their  agi'icnltural  meetings  pre- 
miums for  the  encouragement  of  the  spaying  of  old  cows.  We  doubt 
not  that  other  societies — who  have  not  yet  adopted  this  plan,  not  being 
convinced  of  its  importance,  when  they  are — will  imitate  their  example. 
By  this  means  they  bestow  upon  the  country  a  new  source  of  products. 

"  We  have  been  engaged  for  four  years  in  researches  upon  this  valu- 
able discovery;  we  believe  that  it  is  incumbent  upon  us  to  state  the 
results  that  we  have  obtained  up  to  the  present  time.  In  the  number 
of  twenty-seven  cows,  aged  from  six  to  fifteen  years,  that  we  have  actual- 
ly spayed,  we  have  had  the  following  results:  1.  Increase  of  milk  in 
cows  of  six  years ;  2.  Constant  production  in  those  that  have  passed 
that  age  ;  3.  Milk  richer  than  that  of  the  cow  not  spayed,  consequently 
more  buttery,  and  the  butter  both  of  a  uniformly  golden  color,  and 
liaving  an  aroma  and  taste  far  superior  to  that  of  a  cow  that  has  not 
undergone  this  operation. 

"Early  in  Julv,  1842,  we  obtained,  as  a  subject  of  experiment,  a  cow 
from  Brittany,  of  the  small  kind,  twelve  years  old,  calved  about  two 
months  before,  and  which  gave,  when  we  obtained  her,  about  six  quarts 
of  milk  daily.  The  next  day  after  we  performed  the  operation  of  spay- 
ing— indeed  the  first  eight  days  after  that — the  secretion  of  milk  sensibly 
diminished,  in  consequence  of  the  light  diet  on  which  she  had  been  put, 
but,  on  the  ninth  day,  the  time  at  which  the  cure  was  complete  and  the 
cow  put  on  her  ordinary  food,  the  milk  promptly  returned,  as  to  its 
former  quantity,  and  she  at  ihe  same  time  assumed  a  plumpness  that  she 
had  not  had  previously.  Customarily  bringing  together  the  yield  of 
three  days  for  butter-making,  being  eighteen  quarts,  it  produced  con- 
stantly two  kilograms  of  butter  of  the  best  quality.  P>om  the  month 
of  December  to  the  following  March,  the  quantity  of  milk  diminished 
about  one-third,  and  the  butter  proportionally,  the  cow  during  that  time 


158  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

having  been  put  on  dry  fodder.  But  so  soon  as  we  were  able  to  turn 
her  into  pasture — about  the  beginning  of  April — the  milk,  after  eight 
days  of  this  new  food,  resumed  its  former  course,  and  the  animal  con- 
tinued daily  to  furnish  the  same  relative  amounts  of  milk  and  butter  as 
before. 

"  Three  cows,  two  of  which  were  fourteen  years  old,  and  the  other 
fifteen,  have  dried  up  two  years  after  the  operation,  and  at  the  same  time 
promptly  fattened,  without  increase  or  change  of  food. 

"  One  cow,  eight  years  old,  plentifully  supplied  with  trefoil  and  cab- 
bage, gave,  a  short  time  after  the  operation,  a  quantity  of  milk  nearly 
double  that  which  she  gave  before,  although  she  was  kept  on  the  same 
kind  of  food.  She  has  during  a  year  continued  to  furnish  the  sa?ne 
amount,  and  has,  in  addition,  fattened  so  rapidly,  that  the  owner  has 
been  obliged,  seeing  her  fatness,  to  sell  her  to  the  butcher,  although  she 
was  still  very  good  for  milk. 

"Another  fact,  no  less  worthy  of  remark,  we  m«st  not  pass  over  in 
silence ;  and  which  goes  to  prove  the  superior  and  unchanging  quality 
of  the  milk  of  a  spayed  cow.  It  is,  that  a  proprietor  having  spayed  a 
cow  five  years  old,  recently  calved,  with  the  special  intention  of  feeding 
with  her  milk  a  newly-born  infant,  the  infant,  on  arriving  at  the  age  of 
six  months,  of  a  robust  constitution,  refused  its  pap  when  it  was  once  ac- 
cidentally prepared  with  milk  different  from  that  of  the  spayed  cow. 

"The  other  cows  which  had  been  spayed  continued  to  give  entire 
satisfaction  to  their  owners,  as  well  in  respect  to  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  the  milk,  as  also  by  their  good  condition. 

"  Six  cows  manifested,  shortly  after  the  operation,  and  on  divers  occa- 
sions, the  desire  for  copulation  ;  but  we  have  not  remarked  this  peculi- 
arity except  among  the  younger  ones.  In  other  respects,  as  my  col- 
leagues MM.  Levrat  and  Regere  have  stated,  the  milk  has  not  indicated 
the  least  alteration  in  quantity  or  quality. 

"  Indeed,  the  happy  results  that  are  daily  attained  from  this  important 
discovery  are  so  conclusive,  and  so  well  known  at  this  time  in  our  part 
of  the  country,  that,  as  we  write,  many  proprietors  bring  us  constantly 
good  milch  cows,  since  we  have  called  upon  them  to  do  so,  for  us  to 
practice  the  operation  of  spaying  upon  them.  Every  owner  of  cattle  is 
aware  that,  from  the  time  that  the  cow  has  received  a  bull,  and  in  pro- 
portion as  gestation  advances,  the  milk  changes  and  diminishes  progress- 
ively, until  at  last,  two  or  three  months  before  a  healthy  parturition,  the 
animal  gives  very  little  or  no  milk,  whence  ensues  considerable  loss; 
while  at  the  same  time,  after  the  cows  are  subjected  to  the  bull,  the 
milk  and  butter  are,  for  fifty  days  at  least,  of  a  bad  quality,  and  im- 
proper to  be  exposed  for  sale;  but,  in  addition  to  this,  breeding  cows 
are  generally  subjected  to  such  loss  in  winter,  and  their  keepers  find 
themselves  during  a  great  part  of  the  year  entirely  deprived  of  milk 
and  butter,  and  at  a  time,  too,  when  they  most  need  them. 

"By  causing  the  cows  to  undero-o  this  operation,  as  we  have  men- 
tioned in  the  preceding  remarks,  the  owner  will  never  fail  of  having 
milk  and  butter  of  excellent  quality;  will  fatten  his  animals  easily  when 
thf.-y  dry  up,  and  also  will  improve  the  race,  an  anxiety  for  which  is 
perceived  in  many  provinces  of  France. 


CATTLE.  159 

"In  2:cncral,  the  means  employed  by  farmers  to  obtain  the  best  pos- 
sible price  for  old  cows,  beyond  beina;  useful,  or,  to  use  a  commercial 
term,  not  merchantable,  is  to  bring  them  to  the  bull,  intending-  that 
gestation  shall  give  them  more  suitable  plumpness,  so  that  they  may  be 
sold  on  more  advantageous  terms  to  the  butcher;  but  does  this  state  of 
fictitious  embonpoint  or  fatness,  render  the  flesh  of  these  beasts  better  ? 
Assuredly  not.  It  is  merely  bloated,  flabby  flesh,  livid,  and  which 
easily  taints.  Broth  made  from  it  is  not  rich,  is  without  flavor,  and 
without  an  agreeable  smell;  the  lean  and  fat  are  in  a  measure  infiltrated 
with  water,  and  are  consequently  of  bad  quality  and  very  difficult  sale. 
These  causes  ought  then  to  determine  farmers  to  adopt  the  advice  we 
give  :  they,  as  well  as  the  butcher  and  the  consumer,  will  derive  very 
great  advantage  from  it. 

"  As  our  method  of  operating  may  be  slightly  diflferent  from  that 
pointed  out  by  our  colleague,  M.  Levrat,  we  will  describe  that  which  we 
practice. 

"  Having  covered  the  eyes  of  the  cow  to  be  operated  upon,  we  place 
her  against  a  wall  provided  with  five  rings  firmly  fastened,  and  placed 
as  follows  :  the  first  corresponds  to  the  top  of  the  withers;  the  second 
to  the  lower  anterior  part  of  the  breast ;  the  third  is  placed  a  little  dis- 
tance from  the  angle  of  the  shoulder;  the  fourth  is  opposite  to  the 
anterior  and  superior  part  of  the  lower  region,  and  the  fifth,  which  is 
behind,  answers  to  the  under  part  of  the  buttocks.  We  place  a  strong 
assistant  between  the  wall  and  the  head  of  the  animal,  who  firmly  holds 
the  left  horn  in  his  left  hand,  and  with  his  right,  the  muzzle,  which  he 
elevates  a  little.  This  done,  we  pass  through  and  fasten  the  end  of  a 
long  and  strong  plaited  cord  in  the  ring  which  corresponds  to  the  lower 
part  of  the  breast ;  we  bring  the  free  end  of  the  cord  along  the  left 
flank,  and  pass  it  through  the  ring  which  is  below  and  in  front  of  the 
withers;  we  bring  it  down  along  the  breast  behind  the  shoulders  and 
the  angle  of  the  fore-leg  to  pass  it  through  the  third  ring  ;  from  there, 
we  pass  it  through  the  ring  which  is  at  the  top  of  the  back;  then  it 
must  be  passed  around  against  the  outer  angle  of  the  left  hip,  and  we 
fasten  it,  after  having  drawn  it  tightly  to  the  posterior  ring  by  a  simple 
bow-knot. 

"  The  cow  being  firmly  fixed  to  the  wall,  we  place  a  cord,  fastened 
by  a  slip-noose  around  its  hocks,  to  keep  them  together  in  such  manner 
that  the  animal  cannot  kick  the  operator;  the  free  end  of  the  cord  and 
the  tail  are  held  by  an  assistant.  The  cow,  thus  secured,  cannot,  dur- 
ing the  operation,  move  forward,  nor  lie  down,  and  the  veterinary  sur- 
geon has  all  the  ease  desirable,  and  is  protected  from  accident. 

"  M.  Levrat  advises  that  an  assistant  should  hold  a  plank  or  bar  of 
wood  obliquely  under  -the  teats  and  before  its  limbs  to  ward  off"  the 
kicks;  but  this  method  is  not  always  without  danger,  both  to  the  oper- 
ator and  the  animal,  because,  at  the  commencement,  that  is,  when  the 
surgeon  makes  the  incision  through  the  hide  and  the  muscles,  the  cow 
makes  such  sudden  movements,  and  tries  so  frequently  to  strike  with  its 
left  hind  foot,  that  it  may  happen  that  upon  every  movement,  the  plank 
or  the  bar  may  be  struck  against  the  operator's  legs.  On  the  other 
hand,  although  the  defense  may  be  firmly  held  by  the  assistant,  yet  it 


leO  DO^IESTIO    ANIMALS. 

may  happen  that,  in  spite  of  his  exertions,  he  sometimes  may  be  thrown 
against  the  operator  by  the  movements  she  may  attempt,  and  there 
may  be  an  uncontrollable  displacement  of  the  plank  or  bar;  and  then 
it  may  happen  that  she  becomes  wounded,  and  at  the  same  time  pre- 
vents the  operation,  while,  by  the  mode  we  point  out,  there  is  no  fear 
of  accident,  either  to  the  operator  or  the  beast.  In  case  of  the  want 
of  a  wall  provided  with  rings,  w^e  may  use  a  strong  palisade,  a  solid 
fence,  or  two  trees  a  suitable  distance  apart,  across  which  we  fix  two 
stroncr  bars  of  wood,  separated  fro  n  each  other  according  to  the  size 
of  the  cow. 

"  There  is  another  means  of  confining  them  that  we  have  employed 
for  some  time  past,  where  the  cows  were  very  strong  and  irritable,  more 
simple  than  the  preceding,  less  fatiguing  for  the  animal,  less  troublesome 
to  the  operator,  and  which  answers  perfectly.  It  consists:  First.  In 
leaving  the  cow  almost  free,  covering  her  eyes,  holding  her  head  by  two 
strong  assistants,  one  of  whom  seizes  the  nose  witli  his  hand  and  strong- 
ly pinches  the  nosfrils,  whenever  the  animal  makes  any  violent  move- 
ments during  the  operation.  Second.  To  cause  another  assistant  to  hold 
the  two  hind  legs,  kept  together  by  means  of  a  cord  passed  above  and 
beneath  the  hocks;  this  assistant  also  holds  the  tail  and  pulls  it,  when- 
ever the  animal  seeks  to  change  its  place. 

"The  cow  being  conveniently  disposed,  and  the  instruments  and  ap- 
pliances, such  as  curved  scissors,  upon  a  table,  a  convex-edged  bisroury, 
a  straight  one,  and  one  buttoned  at  the  point,  a  suture  needle  filled  with 
double  thread  of  desired  length,  pledgets  of  lint  of  appropriate  size  and 
length,  a  mass  of  tow  (in  pledgets)  being  collected  in  a  sliallow  basket, 
held  by  an  intelligent  assistant,  we  place  ourselves  opposite  to  the  left 
flank,  our  back  turned  a  little  toward  the  head  of  the  animal ;  we  cut 
off  the  hair  which  covers  the  hide  in  the  mi<ldle  of  the  flanks,  at  an 
equal  distance  between  the  back  and  the  hip,  for  the  space  of  thirteen 
or  fourteen  centimetres  in  circumference;  this  done,  we  take  the  convex 
bistoury,  and  place  it  opened  between  our  teeth,  the  edge  out,  the  joint 
to  the  left;  then,  with  both  hands,  we  seize  the  hide  in  the  middle  of 
the  flank  and  form  of  it  a  wrinkle  of  the  requisite  elevation,  and  run- 
ning lengthwise  of  the  body.  We  then  direct  an  assistant  to  seize  with 
his  right  hand  the  right  side  of  this  wrinkle;  we  then  take  the  bistoury 
that  we  held  in  our  teeth,  and  we  cut  the  wrinkle  at  one  stroke  through 
the  middle;  the  wrinkle  having  been  suffered  to  go  down,  a  separation 
of  the  hide  is  presented  of  sufficient  length  to  enable  us  to  introduce 
the  hand;  thereupon  we  separate  the  edges  of  the  hide  with  the  thumb 
and  forefinger  of  the  left  hand,  and  in  like  manner,  we  cut  through  the 
abdominal  muscles,  the  iliax  (slightly  obliquely)  and  the  lumbar  (across) 
for  the  distance  of  a  centimetre  from  the  lower  extremity  of  the  inci- 
sion made  in  the  hide;  this  done,  armed  with  the  straight  bistoury,  we 
make  a  puncture  of  the  peritoneum  at  the  upper  extremit}''  of  the 
wound;  we  then  introduce  the  buttoned  bistoury,  and  move  it  oblique- 
ly from  above  to  the  lower  part  up  to  the  termination  of  the  incision 
made  in  the  abdominal  muscles.  The  flank  being  oi)ened,  we  introduce 
the  right  hand  into  the  abdomen  and  direct  it  along  the  right  side  of 
the  cavity  of  the  pelvis,  behind  the  cul  de  saurumen  (paunch)  and  un- 


CATTLE.  161 

derneath  the  rectum,  where  we  find  the  comes  de  Vuterus  (matrix);  after 
wc  have  ascertained  the  position  of  these  viscera,  we  search  for  the 
ovaries  (organs  of  reproduction),  which  are  at  the  extremity  of  the  comes 
and  when  we  have  found  them,  we  seize  them  between  the  thumb  and 
forefing-cr,  detach  them  completely  from  the  ligaments  that  keep  them 
in  their  place,  pull  lightly,  separating  the  cord,  and  the  vessels  (uterine 
or  fallopian  tube)  at  their  place  of  union  with  the  ovarium,  by  means 
of  the  nail  of  the  thumb  of  the  forefinger,  which  presents  itself  at  the 
point  of  touch  ;  in  fact,  we  break  the  cord  and  bring  away  the  ovarium. 
AVe  then  introduce  again  the  hand  into  the  abdominal  cavity,  and  we 
proceed  in  the  same  manner  to  extract  the  other  ovaria.  This  opera- 
tion terminated,  we,  by  the  assistance  of  the  needle,  place  a  suture  of 
three  or  four  double  threads  waxed  at  an  equal  distance,  and  at  two 
centimetres  or  a  little  less,  from  the  lips  of  the  wound ;  passing  it 
through  the  divided  tissues,  we  move  from  the  left  hand  with  the  piece 
of  thread ;  having  reached  that  point,  we  fasten  with  a  double  knot,  we 
place  the  seam  in  the  intervals  of  the  thread  from  the  ri^ht,  and  as  we 
approach  the  lips  of  the  wound,  we  fasten  by  a  simple  knot,  with  a 
bow,  being  careful  not  to  close  too  tightly  the  lower  part  of  the  seam,  so 
that  the  suppuration  which  may  be  established  in  the  wound,  may  be 
able  to  escape.  This  operation  eifected,  we  cover  up  the  wound  with 
a  pledget  of  lint  kept  in  its  place  by  three  or  four  threads  passed  throuo*h 
the  stitches,  and  all  is  completed,  and  the  cow  is  then  led  back  to  the 
stable. 

"It  happens,  sometimes,  that  in  cutting  the  muscles,,  of  which  we 
have  before  spoken,  we  cut  one  or  two  of  the  arteries,  which  bleed  so 
much  that  there  is  necessity  for  a  ligature  before  opening  the  peritoneal 
sac,  because,  if  this  precaution  be  omitted,  blood  will  escape  into  the 
abdomen,  and  may  occasion  the  most  serious  consequences. 

"  Care  AfiCr  the  Operation. — The  regimen  we  prescribe  during  the  first 
eight  days  following  the  operation,  is  a  light  diet,  and  a  soothing  luke- 
warm draught;  if  the  weather  should  be  cold,  we  cover  the  cow  with  a 
woolen  covering.  We  must  prevent  the  animal  from  licking  the  wound 
and  from  rubbing  it  against  other  bodies.  The  third  day  after  the 
operation,  we  bathe  morning  and  evening  about  the  wound,  with  water 
of  mallows,  lukewarm,  and  in  default  of  this,  we  anoint  it  with  a  salve 
of  hogs'  lard,  and  we  administer  an  emollient  glyster  during  three  or 
four  days. 

"Eight  days  after  the  operation  we  take  away  the  bandage,  the  lint, 
the  fastenings  and  the  threads;  the  wound  is  at  that  time  completely 
cicatrized,  as  we  have  observed  that  a  reunion  takes  place  almost  always 
by  the  first  intention,  as  we  have  only  observed  suppuration  in  three 
cows,  and  then  it  was  very  slight.  In  this  case  we  must  use  a  slight 
pressure  above  the  part  where  the  suppuration  is  established,  so  as"  to 
cause  the  pus  to  leave  it,  and  if  it  continues  more  than  five  or  six  days, 
we  must  supply  emollients  by  alcoholized  water,  or  chloridized,  especially 
if  it  be  in  summer.  We  then  bring  the  cow  gradually  back  to  her 
ordinary  nourishment. 

"We  have  remarked  in  some  cows  a  swelling  of  the  body  a  short 
time  after  being  spayed,  a  state  that  we  have  attributed  to  the  intro- 


162  do:mestic  animals. 

duction  of  cold  air  into  the  abdomen  during  the  operation  ;  but  this 
derangement  has  generally  ceased  within  twenty-fonr  hours.  If  the 
contrary  should  occur,  we  administer  one  or  two  sudorific  draughts; 
such  as  wine,  warm  cider,  or  half  a  glass  of  brandy,  in  a  quart  of  warm 
water;  treatment  which  suffices  in  a  short  time  to  re-establish  a  healthy 
state  of  the  belly,  the  animal  at  the  same  time  being  protected  by  two 
coverings  of  wool. 

"The  operation  which  we  have  been  describing,  ought  to  be  per- 
formed as  we  have  said  before,  thirty  to  forty  days  after  calving,  upon  a 
cow  which  has  had  her  third  or  fourth  calf,  so  that  we  may  have  a 
greater  abundance  of  milk.  The  only  precaution  to  be  observed  before 
the  operation,  is,  that  on  the  preceding  evening  we  should  not  give  so 
copious  a  meal  as  usual,  and  to  operate  in  the  morning  before  the  ani- 
mal, has  fed,  so  that  the  operator  shall  not  find  any  obstacle  from  the 
primary  digestive  organs,  especially  the  paunch,  which,  during  its  state 
of  ordinary  fullness,  might  prevent  operating  with  facilitv. 

"  roilflusioil. — From  what  has  preceded,  it  is  fixed  and  irrefutable — 
1.  That  spaying  induces  permanency  of  milk,  increase  of  quantity,  and 
improvement  of  quality  ;  richer,  more  buttery,  superior  color,  finer  taste 
and  flavor.  2.  The  most  suitable  age  is  six  years,  and  after  the  third 
or  fourth  calf  3.  The  spayed  cow  fattens  more  easily,  and  furnishes 
beef  of  a  better  quality.  4.  Cows  that  are  bad  breeders  may  be  kept  as 
g;ood  milkers,  and  the  quality  of  ^'ood  cattle  kept  up." 

DISEASES  A\D  RE3IE1)IES.— Tim  is  perhaps  the  most  unsatisfactory 
division  on  which  a  writer  on  cattle  can  pretend  to  write.  There  are  more 
cattle  destroyed  than  cured  by  the  strange  quackery  and  drenching  pur- 
sued by  their  over-officious  owners  ;  and  to  write  any  thing  to  encourage 
a  system  so  ruinous  is  to  perpetuate  the  evil.  'J  he  first  thing  a  dairy- 
man or  grazier  does  is  to  get  a  long  list  of  "  receipts"  inserted  in  a  book, 
classified  or  not,  but  all  under  the  names  of  certain  diseases.  A  cow 
falls  ill.  She  has  the  yellows,  or  the  staggers,  or  the  worms,  not  be- 
cause there  are  any  clear  and  decided  symptoms,  but  because  the  owner 
fancies  it  is  so,  and  his  specific  is  administered.  He  watches  intently, 
and  no  good  effect  is  produced;  he  runs  for  another  medicine  prescribed 
by  another  hand  ;  the  one  opposing,  and  perhaps  counteracting  the 
other.  One  neighbor  looks  in,  and  perhaps  another ;  each  advises  a 
medicine,  as  empirical  as  that  of  the  owner,  and  all  must  be  given,  until 
the  symptoms  increase  and  get  so  bad  that  the  village  quack  is  sent  for, 
who  is  more  clever  than  the  rest,  because  he  has  a  larger  range  of  "  re- 
ceipts," and  he  adds  his  quota  of  drugs,  until  the  beast  dies,  poisoned 
by  medicine  ! 

Now,  so  long  as  unprofessional  men  w^ill  continue  to  prescribe  and 
treat  obstinate  and  complicated  complaints;  and  so  long  as  the  public 
press  will  pander  to  the  receipt-mania,  there  is  no  hope  of  any  amend- 
ment.    Certaitily  we  shall  lend  no  aid  to  the  system. 

But  there  are  some  simple  and  manifest  ailments  where  the  farmer 
may  himself  administer  simple  medicines;  and  there  are  some  cases  of 
emergency,  too,  when  it  may  be  necessary  to  do  something,  till  scientific 
aid  can  be  obtained.  To  these  cases  we  will  allude.  We  will  take  the 
complaints  in  the  order  of  their  frequency. 


CATTLE.  163 

Felon. — This  is  a  complaint  common  to  all  kinds  of  cattle.  It  pro- 
ceeds from  cold  and  exposure,  and  is  accompanied  by  low  fever.  The 
beast  is  more  or  less  otf  his  food.  His  coat  is  staring,  his  eye  dull,  his 
nose  dry,  his  hack  sore^  he  will  flinch  from  the  touch,  and  his  teeth  feel 
loose.  It  is  an  attack  of  felon.  He  requires  rousing  by  cordials.  Let 
liim  be  housed  and  given  a  drink:  one  ounce  of  turmeric,  one  ounce  of 
fenugreek,  one  ounce  of  liquorice,  one  ounce  of  aniseed  powder,  in  a 
quart  of  ale;  and  he  will  generally  recover ;  if  not,  repeat  the  dose.  A 
very  common  and  a  very  safe  process  is  also  to  divide  the  nerve  of  the 
under  side  of  the  tail.  This  relieves  the  back,  and  is  thus  performed  : 
Feel  for  a  soft  place  in  the  under  side  of  the  tail.  The  knobs  are  the 
joints,  the  soft  place  is  the  bone.  Cut  the  skin  across  at  the  soft  part, 
and  it  will  bleed  for  eight  or  ten  minutes.  Tie  up  the  tail  with  a  piece 
of  linen  clotlx,  and  great  relief  will  be  afforded.  This  is  not  mentioned 
in  any  work  we  ever  met  with,  but  we  have  seen  its  efficacy  in  hundreds 
of  instances. 

Hoven,  Blown,  or  "  Over  Full." — Sometimes  a  change  of  food,  or  a  feed 
of  wet  clover  or  potatoes,  greedily  eaten,  will  induce  fermentation  in 
the  stomach  instead  of  digestion.  The  sides  will  be  blown  up,  until  the 
stomach  presses  on  the  skin,  with  a  force  which  renders  it  hard  to  the 
fingers.  For  this  the  probang  is  by  far  the  best  remedy.  Introduce  this 
into  the  stomach  by  the  throat,  and  the  foul  air  will  immediately  escape. 
This  instrument  is  not  always  at  hand,  and  the  beast  will  lie  down,  and 
the  disease  may  continue  until  the  walls  of  the  stomach  are  ruptured. 
In  these  cases  an  ounce  of  ammonia  will  often  give  relief.  A  pint  of 
vinegar  we  have  known  to  effect  it;  but  the  safest  remedy  is  a  pint  of 
linseed  oil.  It  lubricates  the  mouth  of  the  stomach,  and  assists  the  air 
to  escape  by  both  the  orifices,  otherwise  closed  up.  Gentle  exercise  will 
be  useful;  but  all  violence,  and,  above  all,  such  horrid  drenches  as  tar 
and  salt,  with  the  idea  of  making  them  eject  their  saliva,  can  only  do 
harm.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  cut  into  the  stomach,  an  operation 
a  veterinary  surgeon  alone  can  perfoi-m. 

Choking. — A  beast  will  often  get  a  turnip  or  potato  fast  in  its  throat,  which 
will  resist  all  efforts  to  get  it  either  up  or  down;  and,  what  is  worse, 
when  once  this  has  taken  place,  the  beast  will  always  after  be  liable  to  the 
same  accident.  The  mouth  should  first  be  carefully  examined,  to  see 
that  the  turnip  cannot  be  extracted  with  the  hand ;  if  it  can  be,  this  is 
the  best  mode  by  far  for  effecting  its  extraction.  If  not,  the  probang, 
invented  by  Dr.  Munro,  is  absolutely  necessary.  Let  a  little  sweet  oil 
be  first  given  to  the  animal,  and  then  let  the  probang  be  carefully  and 
cautiously  put  down,  the  cup  end  downward  ;  if  the  turnip  offers  much 
n^sistance  it  must  again  be  withdrawn,  and  by  this  its  position  may  be 
changed.  Generally  it  will  go  down,  with  a  very  slight  effort,  and  some- 
times it  may  be  got  up  by  running  the  thumbs  up  each  side  of  the  neck, 
and  gently  pressing  with  the  hand. 

Calving. — This,  though  not  a  disease,  is  rightly  classed  amongst  them, 
because  it  is  strictly  a  subject  of  medical  and  surgical  treatment;  and, 
though  a  natural  operation,  is  always  accompanied  by  more  or  less 
danger.  In  old  cows,  or  cows  after  their  first  and  second  calves,  if  the 
right  presentation  takes  place,  the  animal  will  generally  calve  without 


164:  DOMESTIC   Alf DIALS. 

mechanical  help.  It  often  happens,  that  cows  which  calve  nnobserved, 
do  the  best,  and  we  know  a  very  careful  and  successful  grazier  who 
makes  a  point  of  never  interfering  m  ordinary  cases.  There  is  certainly 
more  danger  from  premature  assistance  than  from  delay.  Usually  the 
waters  are  the  tirst  symptoms  of  decided  labor.  A  thin  filmy  bag  first 
breaks,  and  after  this  the  cow  will  sometimes  eat,  an<l  seem  comfortable 
for  an  hour.  The  second  is  larger  and  thicker,  and  envelops  the  feet 
of  the  calf.  When  the  feet  are  there,  or  one  begins  to  protrude,  the 
other  may  be  sought  for,  and  when  both  are  brought  forward,  mechan- 
ical assistance  may  safely  be  rendered,  if  the  head  is  found  between  and 
above  them.  A  cow  tie  may  be  strung  round  each  foot,  and  cei'tainty 
of  the  head  being  between  them  is  a  signal  for  a  slo\y  and  genje  pull, 
avoiding  any  thing  like  force,  and  the  pulling  being  downward  towards 
the  udder.  But  above  all  things,  <7/?v  time.  The  muscles  relax  and  gi\'e 
way  for  the  calf,  if  proper  time  is  allowed.  "When  calving  is  over,  fol- 
low the  directions  formerly  given  in  regard  to  the  management  of  the 
mother  and  produce, — the  latter  should  suck,  and  the  mother  lick  the  calf. 

False  PreSi'Iltations  will  sometimes  take  place  ;— a  single  foot,  or  the 
head,  or  the  hind  legs.  In  either  of  these  cases,  the  operator  must  wait 
for  one  of  the  throes  being  over,  and  then  gently  put  back  the  calt^  and 
introduce  his  hand,  which  has  been  previously  oiled,  and  bring  forward 
the  legs  which  are  wanting.  If  this  cannot  easily  be  done,  a  veterinary 
surgeon  will  be  necessary.  When  the  hind  legs  alone  are  presented,  it 
is  only  necessary  to  proceed  in  the  nsual  way.  In  cases  of  difficulty,  of 
malformation  in  the  mother,  of  water  in  the  head,  or  monstrosity  in  the 
calf,  it  is  always  best  to  call  in  a  veterinary  surgeon. 

Some  parties  have  a  practice  of  giving  every  cow  a  calving  drink. 
We  nniformly  prefer,  as  we  said,  nature's  medicine,  the  licking  of  the 
calf,  to  any  and  all  others  which  can  be  given.  If  it  has  been  a  long  and 
protracted  labor,  a  drink  of  warm  gruel  will  be  nseful.  If  the  cow  refuses 
to  lick  the  calf,  which  heifers  of  their  first  calves  will  sometimes  do,  it  is 
seldom  necessary  to.do  more  than  run  the  hand  over  the  newly  dropped 
calt^  and  then  pass  it  across  the  mouth  and  lips  of  the  mother. 

Abortion  is  a  habit  with  some  individual  cows,  and  is  often  the  result 
of  the  presence  of  blood,  or  bad  smells,  arising  from  putrid  matter 
decaying  near  the  cow-houses  or  yards  ;  and  once  introduced  into  a  cow- 
house, it  often  so  aftects  the  imaginations  of  the  rest,  as  to  become 
epidemic.  Let  the  cow  and  the  remains  of  the  calf  be  instantly  removed 
from  the  rest,  and  kept  alone  and  quiet.  Chloride  of  lime  should  be 
plentifully  sprinkled,  near  the  stall  where  she  was,  and  the  whole  of  th^ 
herd  should  have  their  noses  besmeared  with  tar. 

ll't'lcillioil  of  the  Placenta,  or  failing  to  cleanse,  after  calving,  sometime 
occurs ;  and  it  requires  great  care  to  prevent  its  retention,  when  tlu^ 
expulsion  docs  not  take  place  in  a  few  hours  after  calving.  It  indicates 
weakness,  and  want  of  tone  in  the  uterus.  A  mild  stimulant  may  be 
given — nothing  better  than  an  infusion  of  chamomile  fiowers,  say  two 
handfuls  in  a  quart  of  water,  added  to  a  quart  of  good  boiled  ale,  and 
if  necessary,  an  injection  of  soap-suds,  to  keep  open  the  bowels  and  pre- 
vent infiammatory  action.  If  it  resists  all  eftbrts,  and  begins  to  putrefy, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  consult  a  veterinary  surgeon. 


CATTLE.  165 

Fed  Water. — This  is  a  complaint  which  frequently  attacks  cows  in 
summer;  and,  on  some  pastures,  it  is  a  regular  occurrence.  If  taken  in 
an  early  stage,  a  dose  of  eight  ounces  of  Epsom  salts,  dissolved  in  a  pint 
of  water,  will  almost  invariably  set  the  beast  right.  If  not  at  hand,  a 
pound  of  common  salt  may  be  given,  and  the  dose  repeated,  in  case  of 
need. 

Quarter  Felon. — Inflammatory  fever,  or  quarter-ill,  is  one  of  the  most 
obstinate  diseases  with  which  cattle  can  be  afflicted  ;  and,  though  odd 
instances  of  a  cure  have  been  reported,  they  are  extremely  few,  unless 
the  disease  has  been  attacked  in  a  very  early  stage.  It  is  also  highly  con- 
tagious, and  will  sometimes  go  through  an  entire  herd  of  calves  before 
they  are  a  year  old,  for  it  seldom  occurs  after  that  period.  The  calf 
gets  off  its  food,  and  becomes  lame  and  stiff  in  one  foot.  The  foot 
may  be  examined,  and  no  cause  of  lameness  discovered,  but  soon  the 
disease  has  become  general ;  air  bubbles  are  formed  between  the  skin  and 
muscles,  and  there  is  a  cracking  sensation  to  the  hand  on  passing  it  over 
the  skin,  especially  in  the  legs.  Inflammatory  fever  is  disorganizing  the 
body. 

Preventives,  as  the  seton  in  the  dewlap,  bleeding,  in  autumn,  doses 
of  dyer's  madder,  etc.,  are  favorite  remedies.  The  seton  can  do  no  harm, 
— it  may  be  tried  ;  but  no  specific,  either  remedy  or  prevention,  has 
yet  been  discovered. 

Foul  in  the  Foot. — This  is  a  tiresome,  worrying  disease,  to  which  large 
heavy  milk  cows  are  specially  subject;  and  is  to  the  cow  what  foot-rot 
is  to  the  sheep.  There  is  inflammatory  action  between  the  claws  ;  it 
begins  to  discharge  fetid  matter,  and  is  a  source  of  pain  and  irritation, 
which  often  dries  up  the  milk,  and  is  often  a  painful  and  annoying  com- 
plaint to  cure.  Let  the  foot  first  be  well  cleaned  and  fomented  with 
warm  water,  and  all  loose  flesh  be  cut  or  clipped  off.  The  foot  may 
then  be  poulticed  for  one  night  with  flaxseed-meal  poultice,  and  then 
again  fomented  and  anointed  with  tar;  and,  if  it  should  smell  very 
oftensively,  a  little  charcoal,  or  a  few  drops  of  chloride  of  lime  may  be 
added  to  the  water.  Next  day  the  inflammation  will  be  relieved  and 
brought  out  externally  by  the  tar,  and  the  foot  may  be  then  dressed  with 
the  buttjr  of  antimony  (chloride  of  antimony)  night  and  morning,  and 
the  tar  applied  afterward.  The  foot  should  be  confined  in  a  boot  or 
stocking,  and  kept  free  from  dirt.  A  little  salts  or  linseed-oil  should  be 
given  to  keep  the  bowels  in  a  state  of  gentle  activity. 

Milk  Fever. — This  is  a  common  complaint  with  cows  which  are  deep 
milkers,  at  least  in  summer.  Prevention  is  all  the  farmer  has  to  do  with, 
for  the  cure,  if  any,  must  be  left  in  the  hands  of  the  veterinary  surgeon. 
He  must,  if  he  see  the  udder  distended,  milk  the  cow  before  calving 
regularly  three  times  a  day  ;  she  must  be  kept  as  cool  and  quiet  as  pos- 
sible, and  have  mashes  of  bran  only,  for  a  few  days  after  calving.  This 
is  coolino;  and  somewhat  laxative,  and  if  the  udder  should  be  hard,  which 
it  shoul  1  not  be  after  this  treatment,  let  it  be  rubbed  with  marsh  mal- 
low ointnent.  A  gentle  dose  of  purgative  medicine  may  be  given  if  the 
cow  is  in  very  high  condition,  and  she  should  be  driven  a  few  miles  every 
day  before  calving.  With  these  precautions  there  is  little  danger,  at 
least  of  its  being  fatal. 

43 


166  do:mestic  animals. 

The  Yellows,  or  Jaundice. — This  is  easily  distinguishable.  "White  cattle 
are  pecuhat'Iy  subject  to  it,  and  it  makes  its  firt  appearance  by  a  yel- 
lowness of  the  eyes  and  under  the  anus  ;  the  bowels  become  costive,  the 
teeth  loose,  the  appetite  gone,  and  rapid  weakness  sets  in.  Give  4  oz. 
common  salt,  half  oz.  Barbadoes  aloes,  1  dr.  ginger,  1  quart  home-brewed 
ale,  made  into  gruel. 

Loss  of  Cud. — AH  ruminating  animals  are  sometimes  subject  to  this. 
The  stomach,  with  a  sort  of  convulsive  action,  throws  the  half  masti- 
cated food  back  into  the  mouth  to  be  rechewed,  and  sometimes  this 
healthy  contractile  tone  of  the  stomach  is  lost.     Give — 6  dr.  Barbadoes  ', 
aloes,  6  oz.  common  salt,  3  dr.  ginger,  1  oz.  alspice,  in  a  quart  of  gruel. 

Ill!laillIlliltioil. — This  is  a  disease  known  by  coldness  of  the  horns  and 
extremities,  generally  accompanied  by  much  acute  and  constant  pain. 
All  home  attempts  to  cure  this  disorder  will  be  impotent;  a  veterinary 
surgeon  should  be  at  once  consulted.  The  same  may  be  said  oi  staggers^ 
strangury,  and  a  variety  of  acute  disorders. 

Pleuro-PlieiiniOIlia  is  only  mentioned  to  say  that  nothing  like  a  specific 
has,  so  far,  been  discovered.  The  fearful  medicine  of  a  gill  of  spirits  of 
turpentine  and  a  gill  of  spirits  of  sweet  nitre  seems  to  be  the  most 
successful  but  desperate  remedy.  If  the  animal  is  fat,  there  is  scarcely 
a  chance  of  recovery.  If  the  animal  is  lean,  remedial  measures  may  be 
tried,  but  they  are  more  likely  to  fail  than  be  successful. 

The  Epidemic,  or  Sore  Mouth  and  Feel, — for  so  a  disease  which  affects 

the  mouth  wMth  blisters  and  the  feet  with  pain  and  inflammation,  is  best 
known,  has  lost  much  of  the  virulence  it  possessed  from  1839  to  1844, 
but  still  is  sometimes  troublesome.  A  dose  of  Glauber  or  Epsom  salts, 
in  the  first  stage,  with  shelter  and  bran  mashes,  will  generally  prevent 
evil  consequenc  ;s.  Should  the  foot  break  out,  the  same  treatment  will 
be  useful  that  w^e  advised  in  the  foul  of  the  foot. 

Diseast'S  of  Calves. — If  well  managed,  cakes  are  subject  to  few  diseases; 
and  if  starved,  neglected,  or  ill  managed,  they  will  be  scarcely  kept 
alive  by  medicine.  The  most  fatal  disease  is  the  scour  or  dlarrhcea.  As 
it  usually  proceeds  from  some  foreign,  often  acrid  matter,  in  the  bowels, 
a  tablespoonful  of  sulphur  in  the  milk  will  generally  remove  it  in  due 
time.  If  it  should  continue  after  this,  give  a  teaspoonful  of  laudanum 
and  a  tablespoonful  of  tincture  of  rhubarb.  We  once  had  a  calf  nearly 
dead  of  diarrhoea ;  medicine  seemed  to  have  no  impression  upon  the 
obstinate  attack.  It  was  dying.  We  gave  it  a  bottle  of  port  wine,  ex- 
pecting it  would  be  dead  in  the  morning.  In  the  morning,  however,  it 
was  well  and  crying  for  its  breakfast.  A  pint  of  good  old  port  will 
often  work  wonders  when  all  other  remedies  have  failed,  both  in  man 
and  beast. 

Cosliveness  is  sometimes  a  disease  in  calves,  as  well  as  the  opposite 
extreme.  Here  it  is  undesirable  to  give  medicine,  unless  it  be  very 
severe.  A  handful  of  onions,  boiled  with  an  ounce  of  fat  bacon,  is  by 
far  the  best  remedy,  and  it  never  does  injury,  but  is  nutritious  to  the 
animal  even  if  well. 

GripfS  is  a  complaint  to  which  young  calves  are  subject,  which  have 
had  sour  milk  given  to  them  ;  and  there  is  often  acute  pain  exhibited, 
kicking  of  the  belly  with  the  hind  legs,  pawing,  etc.     A  cure  is  gener- 


CATTLE.  167 

ally  effected,  in  a  remarkably  short  time,  by  a  cupful  of  peppermint 
water  and  a  teaspoonfiil  of  laudanum. 

The  great  secret  of  keepini^  all  animals  is  to  tend  them  carefully  and 
keep  them  well.  Let  the  lard  said  to  be  subject  to  disease  be  well 
drained  and  better  farmed  ;  let  the  bad  herbage  and  cold  beds  of  the 
cattle  be  cured  and  they  will  be  healthier  and  thrive  better.  It  is  better 
always  to  pay  the  cake-crusher  or  the  miller,  than  to  pay  the  veterinary 
«iuro;eon,  however  skillful  he  may  be. 

In  conclusion,  treat  the  cow  well,  and  she  will  be  grateful.  Let  all 
your  proceedings  be  dictated  by  humanity  and  kindness,  and  a  more 
patient  and  grateful  servant  you  cannot  have. 


THE 


DOMESTIC    SHEEP 


BREEDS,    MANAGEMENT, 


DISEASES. 


THE    SHEEP.  lYl 

THE    ©O.TIESTIC    SHEEP: 
TIIEm  BREEDS,   MAKAGEMEKT,  ETC. 

BREEDS  OF  SHEEP  IN  THE  UNITED  ST^ITES.— The  principall.recds 
of  sheep  in  the  United  States  are  the  Native  sheep,  the  Spuni.^h  and 
Sa.mn  Merinos,  the  I^ew  Leicester,  or  Bakewell,  the  South-Down,  the^ 
Cotswold,  the  'Cheviot  and  the  Lincoln. 

The  Native  Sheep  are  the  variously  mixed  descendants  of  those  origin- 
ally introduced  by  the  first  colonists.  They  yielded  wool  suited  only  to 
the  coarsest  fabrics.  They  were  slow  in  arriving  at  maturity,  compared 
with  the  improved  English  breeds ;  and  the  weight  of  fleece,  and  quality 
and  quantity  of  mutton,  were  inferior  to  the  improved  English  breeds. 
They  have  now,  however,  become  nearly  extinct,  by  crosses  with  foreign 
■  breeds  of  later  introduction. 

American  Merinos. — Of  these  there  are  three  classes,  or  varieties.  The 
first  is  a  large,  short-legged  and  hardy  sheep,  the  wool  ranging  frojn  medium 
to  fine,  and  without  hair  when  well  fed — rarely  exhibiting  gum  exter- 
nally— their  wool  thick,  and  comparatively  long  on  the  back  and  belly,  and 
whiter  than  that  of  the  French  sheep  called  the  Rambouillets,  and  their 
skin  has  the  rich  rose-color  of  the  latter.  The  second  general  class  of 
American  Merinos  are  smaller  than  the  preceding — less  hardy — wool  as 
a  general  thing  finer — covered  with  a  black  pitchy  gum  on  its  extremi- 
ties— fleece  about  one-fourth  lighter  than  in  cla.^s  first.  The  third  class, 
which  have  been  bred  mostly  South,  are  still  smaller  and  less  hardy — 
and  carry  still  finer  and  lighter  fleeces,  'i'he  fleece  is  destitute  of  ex- 
ternal gum.  The  sheep  and  wool  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  the 
Saxon ;  and  if  not  actually  mixed  with  that  blood,  they  have  been 
formed  into  a  similar  variety,  by  a  similar  course  of  breeding.  Class 
first  are  a  larger  and  stronger  sheep  than  those  originally  imported  from 
Spain,  carry  much  heavier  fleeces,  and  in  well  selected  flocks,  or  indi- 
viduals, the  fleece  is  of  a  decidedly  better  quality.'* 

The  Merino  fleece  is  in  vSpain  sorted  into  four  parcels.  The  following 
cut,  while  it  contains  the  portrait  of  a  Merino  ewe,  points  out  the  parts 
whence  the  diff'erent  wools  are  generally  procured.  The  division  can- 
not always  be  accurate,  and  especially  in  sheep  of  an  inferior  quality, 
but  it  is  more  to  be  depend(vi  upon  in  the  Merino  sheep  wherever  found, 
for  the  fleece  is  more  equally  good,  and  the  quantity  of  really  bad  wool 
is  very  small. 

Both  Lasteyrie  and  Livingston  agree  in  this  division.  The  refina,  or 
the  pick-lock  wool  begins  at  the  withers,  and  extends  along  the  back  to 
the  setting  on  of  the  tail.  It  reaches  only  a  little  way  down  at  the  quar- 
ters, but,  dipping  down  at  the  flanks,  takes  in  ail  the  superior  part  of 
the  chest,  and  the  middle  of  the  side  of  the  neck  to  the  angle  of  the 
lower  jaw.     The  fina,  a  valuable  w^ool,  but  not  so  deeply  serrated,  or 

*  Randall's   "  Sheep   Husbandry."      ; 


172 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


i 


THE  SHEEP.  173 

possessino;  so  many  curves  as  the  rrjina,  occupies  the  belly,  and  the 
quarters  and  thighs,  down  to  the  stifle  joint.  The  terceira^  or  wool  of 
the  third  quality,  is  found  on  the  head,  the  throat,  the  lower  part  of  the 
neck,  and  the  slioulders,  terminating;  at  the  elbow  :  the  wool  yielded  by 
the  legs,  and  reaching  from  the  stitle  to  a  little  below  the  hock,  forms  a 
part  of  the  same  division.  A  small  quantity  of  very  inferior  wool  is 
procured  from  the  tuft  that  grows  on  the  forehead  and  cheeks — from  the 
tail,  and  from  the  legs  below  the  hock. 

The  Spanish  wool  continues  to  be  highly  valued  by  the  manufacturer; 
and  the  Spanish  breed  of  sheep  will  be  regarded  with  interest  as  the 
improver  of  t'le  best  old  short-wooled  ones,  and  the  parent  of  a  new  race, 
spreading  throngh  every  quarter  of  the  world,  and  with  which,  so  far  as 
the  Heece  is  concerned,  none  of  the  old  breeds  can  be  for  a  moment 
compared. 

Saxon  Merinos. — This  breed  is  the  result  of  transferring,  nearly  a  cen- 
tury ago,  the  best  Spanish  sheep  into  Saxony,  where  they  appeared  to 
thrive  better  than  in  their  native  region. 

Very  great  care  is  taken  by  the  Saxon  sheep-master  in  the  selection 
of  the  lambs  which  are  destined  to  be  saved  in  order  to  keep  up  the  flock  : 
there  is  no  part  of  the  globe  in  which  such  unremitting  attention  is  paid 
to  the  flock.  Mr.  Charles  Howard,  in  a  letter  with  which  he  favored  the 
author,  says,  that  "when  the  lambs  are  weaned,  each  in  his  turn  is 
placed  upon  a  table,  that  his  wool  and  form  may  be  minutely  observed." 
The  finest  are  selected  for  breeding,  and  receive  a  first  mark.  When 
they  are  one  year  old,  and  prior  to  shearing  them,  another  close  examina- 
tion of  those  previously  marked  takes  place  :  those  in  which  no  defect 
can  be  found,  receive  a  second  mark,  and  the  rest  are  condemned.  A 
few  months  after,  they  in  like  manner  receive  a  third  mark,  when  the 
slightest  blemish  causes  a  rejection  of  the  animal. 

The  utmost  care  is  also  taken  in  the  housing  and  feeding  of  their  flocks, 
evidently  aiming  rather  at  a  fine  staple  of  wool,  than  a  hardy  race  of 
sheep.  Mr.  Carr,  a  large  sheep-owner  in  Germany  thus  describes  their 
management  and  its  effects  : 

They  are  always  housed  at  night,  even  in  summer,  except  in  the  very 
finest  weather,  when  they  are  sometimes  folded  in  the  distant  fallows, 
but  never  taken  to  pasture  until  the  dew  is  oflf  the  grass.  In  the  winter 
they  are  kept  within  doors  altogether,  and  are  fed  with  a  small  quantity 
of  sound  hay,  and  every  variety  of  straw,  which  has  not  suffered  from 
wet,  and  which  is  varied  at  each  feed  ;  they  pick  it  over  carefully,  eating 
the  finer  parts,  and  any  giaiu  that  may  have  been  left  by  the  threshers. 
Abundance  of  good   water  to  drink,  and  rock-salt  in  their  cribs,  are 

indispensables They  cannot  thrive  in   a  damp  climate,  and  it 

is  quite  necessary  that  they  should  have  a  wide  range  of  dry  and  hilly 
pasture  of  short  and  not  over-nutritious  herbage.  If  allowed  to  feed  on 
swampy  or  marshy  ground,  even  once  or  twice  in  autumn,  they  are  sure 
to  die  of  liver  complaint  in  the  following  spring.  If  they  are  permitted 
to  eat  wet  grass,  or  exposed  frequently  to  rain,  they  disappear  by  hund 
reds  with  consumption.  In  these  countries  it  is  found  the  higher  bred 
the  sheep  is,  especially  the  Escurial,  the  more  tender. 

The  American  Saxon  sheep  have  been  so  largely  intermixed  with 


ITtt  DOMESTIC    AXLMALS. 

American  Merinos,  and  other  imported  and  native  breeds,  as  to  render 
it  difficult  to  find  one  of  pure  breed  ;  yet  careful  breeders  have  generally 
sncli  £>ood  stocks,  that  it  is  questioned  by  good  authority,  whether  the 
admixture,  after  all,  has  deteriorated  the  Saxons  among  us, — that 
crossing  with  Merinos  has  a  tendency  to  increased  hardiness  in  the 
animal,  without  in  any  important  degree  affecting  the  fineness  of  the 
wool  staple. 

The  wool  of  the  American  Saxons  is  much  finer  tlian  that  of  Ameri- 
can Merinos,  their  fleeces  average  from  two  or  two  and  a  quarter  to  three 
pounds.'  They  are  relatively  tender,  requiring  more  protection  and  care 
than  any  other  imported  sliecp.  They  are  not  as  long-lived  as  the 
Merinos,  do  not  fatten  as  well,  nor  consume  as  much  food.  Their  lambs 
are  less  vigorous  and  require  more  care  to  rear  them. 

The  A'ew  Leicester,  or  Bakewell. — It  was  about  the  middle  of  the  last 
century  that  Mr.  Bakewell,  of  Dishley  in  Leicestershire,  first  applied  him- 
self to  the  improvement  of  the  old  Leicesters.  This  old  breed  had  many 
good  points,  yet  it  had  its  defects,  and  these  of  no  trilling  character  ;  it 
was  large,  heavy,  and  coai'se-grained,  the  mutton  having  1  ttle  flavor,  and 
no  delicacy  ;  it  was  long  in  the  carcass,  flat-sided,  large-boned,  and  clumsy ; 
the  ewes  weighed  eighteen  or  twenty  pounds  the  quarter,  the  wethers 
from  twenty  to  thirty  pounds.  The  wool  measured  from  ten  to  fifteen 
inches  in  the  length  of  the  staple,  and  was  variable  as  to  quality,  but 
generally  coarse.  These  sheep  were  slow  feeders,  and  returned  little 
profit. 

Such  was  the  stock  common  to  Leicestershire  and  the  adjacent  coun- 
ties, on  which  Mr.  Bakewell  began  his  course  of  experiments  ;  in  the 
prosecution  of  which  he  violated  all  the  old  axioms  of  his  day,  and  pro- 
ceeded upon  principles  totally  at  variance  with  those  by  which  the 
breeders  had  previously  regulated  their  practice.  They  aimed  at  size, 
irrespective  of  symmetry  and  aptitude  to  latten  ;  and  at  heavy  fleeces, 
considering  weight  of  wool  as  of  primary  importance.  Mr.  Bakewell 
on  the  contrary  regarded  symmetry  and  aptitude  to  fatten  as  first-rate 
qualities  ;  he  found  these  to  be  inherent  in  small,  not  in  large  heavy- 
boned  sheep,  which  latter  consumed  an  extravagant  abundance  of  food 
without  returning  an  adequate  profit;  whereas  the  smaller  sheep  he  fonnd 
to  increase  more  rapidly  in  weight,  proportionately,  even  upon  a  less 
consumption  of  diet,  llis  experience  had  also  taught  him  another  point, 
vi/.,  that  sheep  carrying  a  heavy  fleece  had  always  less  aptitude  to  fatten, 
and  were  far  slower  in  ripening,  than  those  whose  fleece  was  moderate ; 
and  he  considered  symmetry  and  early  ripening  to  be  of  more  import- 
ance than  the  loss  of  a  few  pounds  in  the  fleece.  In  short,  he  considered 
tliat  the  value  of  the  carcass  was  the  first  object  to  be  attended  to  in 
breeding  of  sheep;  and  he  looked  upon  the  fleece  as  of  secondary  im- 
portance— not  that  the  loss  of  two  or  three  pounds  in  the  fleece  was 
not  an  object,  but  still  lie  thought  that  if  to  preserve  this  the  farmer 
not  only  lost  ten  or  twelve  pounds  of  mutton  by  it,  but  had  to  feed  his 
sheep  for  twelve  or  eighteen  months  longer  tlian  he  ouglit,  he  would 
pay  dearly  for  his  three  pounds  of  wool  extra.  Mr.  Bakewell  was  right; 
and  on  these  principles  he  addressed  himself  to  his  task. 

The  improved  Leicesters  are  not  adapted  for  scanty  pasturage,  over 


THE  SHEEP.  175 

Tvhich  the  sheep  mnst  travel  all  day  in  order  to  procure  a  sufficiency  of 
food.  They  require  a  good,  or  at  least  moderate  soil,  and  on  this  they 
fatten  with  incredible  rapidity,  and  are  consequently  very  profitable 
to  the  breeder.  If  in  the  establishment  of  this  breed  Mr.  Bakewell 
erred,  it  was  in  the  very  little  regard  he  paid  to  the  wool,  in  which  his 
immediate  followers  imitated  hiin,  some  even  going  so  far  as  to  prefer 
sheep  with  bad  fleeces  to  those  with  good,  as  if  a  fine  and  perfect 
carcass  and  good  wool  were  incompatible  with  each  other.  But  this 
false  notion  is  now  corrected,  and  the  fleece  obtains  its  due  share  of 
attention. 

^Vith  respect  to  the  quality  of  the  mutton  of  the  improved  Leicesters, 
we  do  not  estimate  it  so  highly  as  that  of  some  of  the  short-wooled 
breeds.  When  not  over  fVit,  it  is  tender  and  juicy,  but  destitute  of  high 
flavor ;  but  when  fattened  to  a  high  degree,  the  interstices  of  the  fibers 
of  the  muscles  are  replete  with  fat  in  such  a  manner  that  the  line  of  dis- 
tinction between  fat  and  lean  is  almost,  as  it  were,  lost;  the  carcass 
appears  to  be  a  mass  of  fat,  and  is  any  thing  but  attractive.  Besides, 
such  meat  is  not  profitable  to  the  purchaser,  though  it  may  be  to  the 
cook.  AVe  admit,  however,  that  it  is  the  grazier's  fault  if  he  carries  the 
fattening  process  beyond  the  point  at  which  he  ought  to  stop,  whether 
he  regards  his  own  profit  or  the  interest  of  the  consumer.  It  is  the 
character  of  the  breed  to  ripen  early  and  quickly.  As  soon  as  the 
sheep  are  in  a  proper  condition  for  the  butcher,  the  grazier,  instead  of 
wasting  more  food  upon  them,  should  get  rid  of  them,  and  commence 
the  feeding  of  another  lot,  to  be  disposed  of  in  their  turn,  as  soon  as 
ready. 

It  is  for  the  accumulation  of  outside  fat  that  the  Leicesters  are  chiefly 
remarkable.  They  have  comparatively  little  loose  inside  fat  or  tallow 
— a  point  of  some  consequence  to  the  butcher,  who  deems  this  as  add- 
ing to  his  profit.  By  way  of  a  counterbalance,  however,  the  smallness 
of  the  head,  the  thinness  of  the  pelt,  and  the  general  greater  weight  of 
the  carcass  than  the  appearance  of  the  animal  would  indicate,  should 
be  taken  into  consideration.  Whatever  it  may  be  to  the  butcher, 
"this  diminution  of  offal  is  advantageous  to  the  grazier;  for  it  shows  a 
disposition  to  form  fat  outwardly,  and  is  uniformly  accompanied  by  a 
tendency  to  quickness  of  improvement."  In  this  latter  quality  the  new 
Leicesters,  cceteris  paribus^  are  unrivaled. 

The  new  Leicesters,  with  all  their  good  qualities,  are  not  a  hardy 
race,  neither  are  they  so  prolific  as  many  other  breeds.  The  ewes  sel- 
dom produce  twins,  nor  indeed  did  the  founders  of  this  stock  deem  the 
production  of  twins  desirable.  They  aimed  at  bringing  forward  the 
lamb  as  early  as  possible,  and  rightly  considered  that  few  ewes  could 
produce  two  such  lambs  as  would  meet  with  their  wishes  and  realize 
their  object.  The  fact,  moreover,  is,  that  the  exclusive  attention  pnid 
to  the  establishment  of  a  race,  the  vital  energies  of  which  were  to  be 
exhibited  in  the  attainment  of  early  maturity,  and  in  the  quick  accumu- 
lation of  fat,  while  productive  of  the  results  aimed  at,  necessarily  entailed 
counterbalancing  deficiencies.  A  tendency  to  rapid  fattening  and  early 
ripeness  is  not  coexistent,  as  a  general  rule,  with  great  fertility.  In 
this  point,  then,  the  new  Leicesters  are  defective,  but  less  so  than  for- 


176  DOMESTIC   AIJIMALS. 

merly.  Still  the  ewes  do  not  yield  any  great  abundance  of  milk,  and 
the  lambs  are  tender,  delicate,  and  unfitted  to  endure  any  great  inclem- 
ency of  weather. 

As  a  whole  the  New  Leiccsters  have  not  succeeded  so  well  in  this 
country  as  in  England,  owing  to  the  severity  of  our  winters  and  to  the 
heat  and  dryness  of  our  summers.  They  do  not  find  that  luxuriance 
and  abundance  in  our  pastures  so  necessary  to  their  highest  thrift. 
Their  flesh  has  not  sufficient  admixture  of  lean  to  be  palatable  to  our 
people.  The  breed,  however,  succeeds  well  in  rich  lowland  pastures, 
and  yields  a  profitable  return. 

The  South-Downs. — Formerly  the  South-Down  sheep  were  very  indi  - 
ferent;  it  is  true  that  they  carried  very  fine  wool,  but  then  the  carcass 
was  ill-formed,  a  disadvantage  which  more  than  counterbalanced  the 
excellence  of  the  fleece.  They  were  small,  thin  in  the  neck,  high  in  the 
shoulders  and  in  the  loins,  down  on  the  rump,  with  the  tail  set  very  low; 
the  back  was  sharp,  the  ribs  flat,  and  the  fore-quarters  narrow;  yet 
there  were  materials  to  work  upon,  and  besides,  these  sheep  had  some 
excellent  qualifications;  they  arrived  at  early  maturity,  were  extremely 
hardy,  thrived  upon  scanty  keep  and  short  feed  on  the  natural  pastures, 
and  the  mutton  was  fine-grained  and  of  good  flavor. 

Attempts  were  first  made  to  improve  on  South-Downs  by  crosses  wnth 
the  Leicesters,  a  long-wooled  sheep,  but  these  attempts  ended  in  utter 
failure,  nor  were  crosses  between  them  and  the  Merinos  ultimately  ad- 
vantageous. It  was  by  careful  selections,  and  the  keeping  in  view  of  a 
definite  purpose  in  the  choice  of  breeding-stock,  that  the  improvement 
of  the  South-Downs  was  achieved.  It  is  to  Mr.  EUman  of  Glynde  that 
the  elevation  of  this  breed  to  its  unrivaled  position  in  its  own  line  as  a 
hill  sheep  is  due. 

Mr.  Culley,  in  his  "Live  Stock,"  I8OY,  notices  the  exertions  "of 
the  ingenious  Mr.  Ellman,  whose  flock  is  already  superior  to  that  of 
most  of  his  neighbors,  both  in  carcass,  quantity,  and  quality  of  wool." 
This  enterprising  and  skillful  breeder  did  not,  however,  content  himself 
"with  mediocrity;  and  in  the  Annals  of  Agriculture^  Mr.  A.  Young 
thus  speaks  of  Mr.  Ellman's  South-Downs:  "  His  flock,  I  must  observe, 
is  unquestionably  the  first  in  the  country,  the  wool  the  finest,  and  the 
carcass  the  best  proportioned.  Both  these  valuable  properties  are 
united  in  the  flock  at  Glynde.  lie  has  raised  the  merits  of  the  breed 
by  his  unremitting  attention,  and  it  now  stands  unrivaled."  Mr.  Ell- 
man's own  description  of  them  is  very  unpretending.  He  says:  "They 
are  now  much  improved  both  in  shape  and  constitution  ;  they  are  smaller 
in  the  bone,  equally  hardy,  with  a  greater  disposition  to  fjitten,  and  much 
heavier  in  carcass  when  fat.  They  used  seldom  to  fatten  until  they 
were  four  years  old ;  but  it  would  now  be  a  rare  sight  to  see  a  pen  of 
South-Down  wethers  at  market  more  than  two  years  old,  and  many  are 
killed  before  they  reach  that  age."  Doubtless  the  age  is  reckoned,  as 
is  usual  with  sheep,  not  from  the  time  when  lambed,  but  from  the  time 
of  the  first  shearing. 

The  average  dead  weight  of  South-Down  wethers,  varies  from  100 
to  150  pounds.  They  are  very  healthy  and  hardy,  seldom  aflfect.ed  with 
the  rot  and  the  diseases  common  with  other  varieties. 


THE    SHEEP. 


177 


178  DOMESTIC   ANESIALS. 

This  animal  lias  a  patience  of  occasional  short  keep,  and  an  endurance 
of  hard  stocking  scarcely  surpassed  by  any  other  sheep,  an  early  matu- 
rity not  inferior  to  that  of  the  Leicesters,  the  flesh  finely  grained,  and 
the  wool  of  the  most  useful  quality. 

The  average  weight  of  the  fleece  of  a  South-Down  hill  sheep  was 
stated  by  Mr.  Luccock,  in  1800,  to  be  two  pounds;  it  has  now  in- 
creased to  three  pounds.  The  fleece  of  the  lowland  sheep,  that  used 
to  be  three  pounds,  is  now  three  and  a  half,  or  even  four  pounds.  This 
is  the  natural  consequence  of  the  different  mode  of  feeding,  and  the 
larger  size  of  the  animal.  The  length  of  the  staple  in  the  hill  sheep 
rarelv  exceeded  two  inches,  and  was  oftener  not  more  than  one  and  a 
half  inches :  it  is  now  more  than  two  inches,  and  in  some  of  the  low- 
land sheep  it  has  reached  to  four  inches.  The  number  of  hill  sheep  had 
rather  decreased  since  1800,  and  those  in  the  lowlands  had  materially 
so  ;  but  now^  that  South-Down  wool  is  once  more  obtaining  a  remuner- 
ating price,  the  flocks  are  becoming  larger  than  they  were.  The  color 
of  the  wool  differs  materially,  according  to  the  color  of  the  soil.  The 
shortest  and  the  finest  wool  is  produced  on  the  chalky  soil,  where  the 
sheep  have  to  travel  far  for  their  food  ;  but  there  is  a  liardness  and  a 
brittleness  about  this  wool  wiiich  was  always  seriously  objected  to. 

The  greater  comparative  bulk  of  the  fiber,  and  paucity  of  serrations, 
will  account  for  the  harshness  and  want  of  felting  property,  which  have 
been  considered  as  defects  in  this  wool.  The  brittleness  of  the  pile  is, 
perhaps,  to  be  attributed  chiefly  to  the  soil.  The  clothiers  were  always 
careful  not  to  use  too  much  of  it  in  the  making  of  their  finest  cloths. 
When  most  in  repute,  the  South-Dowu  was  principally  devoted  to  the 
manufacture  of  servants'  and  army  clothing,  or  it  was  sparingly  mixed 
with  other  wools  for  finer  cloth.  Now,  however,  when  it  is  materially 
increased  in  length,  and  become  a  combing  wool,  and  applicable  to  so 
many  more  purposes  than  it  was  before — now  that  it  enters  into  the 
composition  of  flannels,  baizes,  and  worsted  goods  of  almost  every  de- 
scription— its  fineness  and  its  felting,  compared  with  some  of  the  other 
short  wools,  render  it  a  truly  valuable  article.  The  South-Down  sheep- 
master  justly  repudiates,  the  charge  of  its  deterioration — it  has  onhj 
changed  ita  character — it  has  become  a  good  combing  wool,  instead  of 
an  inferior  carding  one;  it  has  become  more  extensively  useful,  and 
therefore  more  valuable  ;  and  the  time  is  not  far  distant  when  the  sheep- 
owner  will  be  convinced  that  it  is  his  interest  to  make  the  South-Down 
wool  even  longer  and  heavier  than  it  now  is.  A  sheep  possessing  such 
qualities  must  of  course  be  valuable  in  upland  districts,  in  the  vicinity 
of  markets.  They  have  been  introduced  into  every  part  of  the  British 
dominions,  and  imported  into  various  other  countries.  The  Emperor  of 
Russia  paid  Mr.  Ellman  three  hundred  guineas  for  two  rams,  and  in 
1800,  "a  ram  belonging  to  the  Duke  of  Bedford,  was  let  for  one  season 
at  eighty  guineas,  two  others  at  forty  guineas  each,  and  four  more  at 
twenty-eight  guineas  each."  These  valuable  sheep  were  introduced  into 
the  United  States  a  few  years  since  by  Col.  J.  H.  Powell,  of  Philadel- 
phia, and  a  small  number  were  imported  in  1834.  The  last  were  from 
the  flock  of  Mr,  Ellman,  at  a  cost  of  $60  a  head.  Several  other  impor- 
tations have  sjnco  taken  place. 


THE    SHEEP.  179 

The  Cotswold  Sheep. — The  Cotswold  is  a  large  breed  of  sliecp,  with  a 
lono-  and  abundant  fleece,  and  the  ewes  are  very  prolific  and  good 
nurses.  Formerly  tlicy  were  bred  only  on  the  hills,  and  fatted  in  the 
valleys  of  the  Severn  and  the  Thames;  but  with  the  inclosure  of  the 
Cotswold  Hills  and  the  improvement  of  their  cultivation  they  have  been 
reared  and  fatted  in  the  same  district.  They  have  been  extensively 
crosvsed  with  the  Leicester  sheep,  by  which  their  size  and  fleece  have 
been  somewhat  diminished,  but  tlieir  carcasses  considerably  improved, 
and  their  maturity  rendered  earlier.  The  wethers  are  now  sometimes 
fattened  at  fourteen  months  old,  when  they  weigh  from  fifteen  to  twen- 
ty-four pounds  per  quarter,  and  at  two  years  old  increase  to  twenty  or 
thirty  pounds.  The  wool  is  strong,  mellow,  and  of  good  color,  though 
rather  coarse,  six  to  eight  inches  in  length,  and  from  seven  to  eight 
pounds  per  fleece.  The  superior  hardihood  of  the  improved  Cotswold 
over  the  Leicester,  and  their  adaptation  to  common  treatment,  together 
with  the  prolific  nature  of  the  ewes  and  their  abundance  of  milk,  have 
rendered  them  in  many  places  rivals  of  the  New  Leicester,  and  have 
obtained  for  them,  of  late  years,  more  attention  to  their  selection  and 
general  treatment,  under  which  management  still  farther  improveuKMit 
appears  very  probable.  They  have  also  been  used  in  crossing  other 
breeds,  and,  as  before  noticed,  have  been  mixed  with  the  Kampshire 
Downs.  It  is,  indeed,  the  improved  Cotswold  that,  under  the  term  new 
or  improved  Oxfordshire  sheep,  are  so  frequently  the  successful  candi- 
dates for  prizes  off'ered  for  the  best  long-wooled  sheep  at  some  of  the 
principal  agricultural  meetings  or  shows  in  the  kingdom.  The  quality 
of  the  mutton  is  considered  superior  to  that  of  the  Leicester,  the  tailow 
being  less  abundant,  with  a  larger  development  of  muscle  or  flesh.  We 
may,  therefore,  regard  tliis  breed  as  one  of  established  reputation,  and 
extending  itself  throughout  every  district  of  the  country. 

The  thevlots. — This  breed  has  greatly  extended  itself  throughout  the 
mountains  of  Scotland,  and  in  many  instances  supplanted  the  bl-ick- 
faced  breed  ;  but  the  change,  though  in  many  cases  advantageous,  has 
in  some  instances  b(;en  otherwise,  the  latter  being  somewhat  hardier, 
and  more  capable  of  subsisting  on  heathy  pasturage.  They  are,  how- 
ever, a  hardy  race,  well  suited  for  their  native  pastures,  bearing  wiili 
comparative  impunity  the  storms  of  winter,  and  thriving  well  on  poor 
keep.  Though  less  hardy  than  the  black-faced  sheep  of  Scotland,  they 
are  more  profitable  as  respects  their  feeding,  making  more  flesh  on  an 
equal  quantity  of  food,  and  making  it  quicker.  They  have  white  faces 
and  legs,  open  countenances,  lively  eyes,  without  horns.  The  ears  are 
large,  and  somewhat  singular,  and  there  is  much  space  between  the  cais 
and  eyes.  The  carcass  is  long;  the  back  straight;  the  shoulders  rather 
light;  the  ribs  circular;  and  the  quarters  good.  The  legs  are  small  in 
the  bone  and  covered  with  wool,  as  well  as  the  body,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  face.  The  Cheviot  wether  is  fit  for  the  butcher  at  three 
years  old,  and  averages  from  twelve  to  eighteen  pounds  per  quarter — 
the  mutton  being  of  a  good  quality,  though  inferior  to  the  South-Down, 
and  of  less  flavor  than' the  black-faced.  "The  Cheviot,  though  a  moun- 
tain breed,  is  quiet  and  docile,  and  easily  managed.  The  wool  is  coarse 
and  inferior  to  that  of  the  South-Down. 


180  DOMp:s'nc  anevials. 

COMPARATIVE  VALUE  OF  THE  DIFFERENT  BREEDS  OF  SKEEP.— On  tins 
subject  we  quote  the  careful,  and  to  us  convincing  reasoning  of  H.  S. 
Randall,  Esq.,  contained  in  "The  Sheep  Husbandry:" 

"  In  instituting  a  comparison  between  breeds  of  sheep  for  wool-grow- 
ing purposes,  I  will,  in  the  outset,  lay  down  the  obviously  incontrover- 
tible proposition  that  the  question  is  not  what  variety  will  shear  the 
heaviest  or  even  the  most  valuable  fleeces,  irrespective  of  the  cost  of 
production.  Cost  of  feed  and  care,  and  every  other  expense,  must  be 
deducted,  to  fairly  test  the  profits  of  an  animal.  If  a  large  sheep  con- 
sume twice  as  much  food  as  a  small  one,  and  give  but  once  and  a  half 
as  much  wool,  it  is  obviously  more  profitable,  other  things  being  equal, 
to  keep  two  of  the  smallest  sheep.  The  true  question  then  is,  with  the 
same  expense  in  other  particulars,  from  what  breed  will  the  verdure 
of  an  acre  of  land  produce  the  greatest  value  of  wool? 

*'  Let  us  first  proceed  to  ascertain  the  comparative  amount  of  food 
consumed  by  the  several  breeds.  There  are  no  satisfactory  experiments 
which  show  that  breed,  in  itself  considered,  has  any  particular  influence 
on  the  quantity  of  food  consumed.  It  is  found,  with  all  varieties,  that 
the  consumption  is  in  proportion  to  the  live  weight  of  the  (grown)  ani- 
mal. Of  course,  this  rule  is  not  invariable  in  its  individual  application, 
but  its  general  soundness  has  been  satisiiictorily  established.  Spooner 
states  that  grown  sheep  take  up  three  and  one-third  per  cent,  of  their 
weight  in  what  is  equivalent  to  dry  hay  per  day,  to  keep  in  store  condi- 
tion. Veit  places  the  consumption  at  two  and  a  half  per  cent>  My 
experience  would  incline  me  to  place  it  about  midway  between  the  two. 
But  whatever  the  precise  amount  of  the  consumption,  if  it  is  propor- 
tioned to  the  weight,  it  follows  that  if  an  acre  is  capable  of  sustaining 
three  Merinos  weio-hing  one  hundred  pounds  each,  it  will  sustain  but 
two  Leicesters  weighing  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  each,  and  two 
and  two-fifths  South-Downs,  weighing  one,  hundred  and  twenty-five 
pounds  each.  Merinos  of  this  weight  often  shear  five  pounds  of  fleece, 
taking  flocks  through.  1  he  herl)age  of  an  acre,  then,  would  give 
fifteen  pounds  of  Merino  wool,  and  but  twelve  pounds  of  Leicester,  and 
but  nine  three-fifths  pounds  of  Soutli-Down  (estimating  the  latter  as 
high  as  four  pounds  to  the  fleece)  !  Even  the  finest  and  lightest  fleeced 
sheep  ordinarily  known  as  Merinos,  average  about  four  pounds  to  the 
fleece,  so  that  the  feed  of  an  acre  would  produce  as  much  of  the  highest 
quality  of  wool  sold  under  the  name  of  Merino,  as  it  would  of  New  Lei- 
cester, and  more  than  it  would  of  South-Down  !  The  former  would  be 
worth  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  per  cent,  niore  per  pound  than  eithei 
of  the  latter!  Nor  does  this  indicate  all  the  actual  ditference,  as  I  have, 
in  the  preceding  estimate,  placed  the  live-weight  of  the  English  breed? 
low,  and  that  of  the  Merino  high.  The  live-weight  of  the  four  pound 
fine  fleeced  Merino  does  not  exceed  ninety  pounds.  It  ranges  from 
eighty  to  ninety  pounds,  so  that  three  hundred  pounds  of  live-weiglii 
would  give  a  still  greater  product  of  wool  to  the  acre.*  I  consider  it 
perfectly  safe  to  say  that  the  herbage  of  an  acre  will  uniformly  give 


*  It  is  understood  that  all  of  these  live-weights  refer  to  ewes  in  fair  ordinary,  or 
what  ia  called  store  condition. 


THE  SHEEP.  181 

nearly  donbV,  tlie  value  of  Merino,  that  it  will  of  any  of  the  English 
long  or  middle  wools. 

"The  important  question  now  remains,  What  are  the  other  relative 
expenses  of  these  breeds  ?  I  speak  from  experience  when  I  say  that  (he 
Leicester*  is  in  no  respect  a  hardier  sheep  than  the  Merino — indeed,  it 
is  my  firm  conviction  that  it  is  less  hardy,  under  the  most  favorable 
circumstances.  It  is  more  subject  to  colds,  and  I  think  its  constitution 
breaks  up  more  readily  under  disease.  The  lambs  are  more  liable  to 
perish  from  exposure  to  cold,  when  newly  dropped.  Under  unfavorable 
circumstances — herded  in  large  flocks,  pinched  for  feed,  or  subjected  to 
long  journeys — its  capacity  to  endure,  and  its  abihty  to  rally  from  the 
effects  of  such  drawbacks,  do  not  compare  with  those  of  the  Merino. 
The  high-bred  South-Down,  thongli  considerably  less  hardy  than  the 
unimproved  parent  stock,  is  still  fairly  entitled  to  the  appellation  of  a 
hardy  animal.  In  this  respect,  I  consider  it  just  about  on  a  par  with 
the  Merino.  I  do  not  think,  however,  it  will  bear  as  hard  stocking  as 
the  latter,  without  a  rapid  diminution  in  size  and  quality.  If  the  pecu- 
liar merits  of  the  animal  are  to  be  taken  into  account  in  determining 
the  expenses — and  I  think  they  should  be — the  superior  fecundity  of 
the  South-Down  is  a  point  in  its  favor,  as  well  for  a  wool-producing  as 
a  mutton  sheep.  The  South-Down  ewe  not  only  frequently  yeans  twin 
lambs,  as  do  both  the  Merino  and  Leicester,  but  she  possesses,  unlike 
the  latter,  nursing  properties  to  do  justice  hy  them.  But  tliis  advantage 
is  fully  counterbalanced  by  the  superior  longevity  of  the  Merino.  All 
the  English  mutton  breeds  begin  to  rapidly  deteriorate  in  amount  of 
wool,  capacity  to  fatten,  and  in  general  vigor,  at  about  five  years  old, 
and  their  early  maturity  is  no  ofiset  to  thi.%  in  a  sheep  kept  for  wool- 
growing  purposes.  This  early  decay  would  require  earlier  and  more 
rapid  slaughter  or  sale  than  would  always  be  economically  convenient, 
or  even  possible,  in  a  region  situated  in  all  respects  like  the  South.  It 
is  well,  on  properly  stocked  farms,  to  slaughter  or  turn  off  the  Merino 
wether  at  four  or  five  years  old,  to  make  room  for  the  breeding  stock  ; 
but  he  will  not  particularly  deteriorate,  and  he  will  richly  pay  the  way 
with  his  fieec(>,  for  several  years  longer.  Breeding  ewes  are  rarely 
turned  off  before  eight,  and  are  frequently  kept  until  ten  years  old,  at 
which  period  they  exhibit  no  greater  marks  of  age  than  do  the  Down 
and  Leicester  at  five  or  six.  I  have  known  instances  of  Merino  ewes 
breeding  uniforudy  until  fifteen  years  old  !  The  improved  Cotswold  is 
said  to  be  hardier  than  the  Leicester;  but  I  have  said  less  of  this  va- 
riety, throughout  this  entire  letter,  as  from  their  great  sizef  and  the 
consequent  amount  of  food  consumed  by  them,  and  the  other  necessary 
incidents  connected  with  the  breeding  of  so  large  animals,  the  idea  of 
their  being  introduced  as  a  wool-growing  sheep  anywhere,  and  particu- 
larly on  lands  grassed  like  those  of  the  South,  is,  in  my  judgment,  utter- 
ly preposterous.     There  is  one  advantage  which  all  the  coarse  races  of 

*  I  speak  of  fiill-bloodcd  Leieesters.  Some  of  its  crosses  are  much  hardier  than 
the  pure  bred  sheep. 

f  I  saw  two  at  the  late  New  York  State  Fair,  at  Saratoga,  which  weighed  over 
three  hundred  pounds  each. 

^  44 


182  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

sheep  have  over  the  Merino.  Either  because  their  hoofs  do  not  grow 
Jono;  and  turn  under  from  the  sides,  as  do  those  of  tlie  Merino,  and  thus 
hold  dirt  and  filth  in  constant  contact  with  the  foot,  the  coarse  races 
are  less  subject  to  the  visitations  of  the  hoof-ail,  and,  when  contracted, 
it  spreads  with  less  violence  and  malignity  among  them.  Taking  all 
the  circumstances  connected  with  the  peculiar  management  of  each 
race,  and  all  the  incidents,  exigencies,  and  risks  of  the  husbandry  of 
each  fairly  into  account,  I  am  fully  convinced  that  the  expenses,  other 
than  those  of  feed,  are  not  smaller  per  capita^  or  even  in  the  number 
required  to  stock  an  acre,  in  either  of  the  English  breeds  above  referred 
to,  than  in  the  Merino.  Nor  should  I  be  disposed  to  concede  even 
equality,  in  these  respects,  to  either  of  those  English  breeds,  excepting 
the  South-Down. 

"You  write  me,  sir,  that  many  of  the  South  Carolina  planters  are 
under  the  impression  that  coarse  wools  will  be  most  pi-ofitably  grown 
by  i\\Qm^  first,  because  there  is  a  greater  deficit  in  the  supply,  and  tln-y 
are  better  protected  from  foreign  competition  ;  and,  secondly,  because 
they  furnish  the  raw  material  for  so  great  a  portion  of  the  woolens  con- 
sumed in  the  South.  Each  of  these  premises  is  true — but  are  the 
conclusions  legitimate  ?  Notvvithstanding  the  greater  deficit  and  the 
better  protection,  do  the  coarse  wools  bear  as  high  a  price  as  the  fine 
ones?  If  not,  they  are  not  as  profitable,  for  I  have  already  shown  that 
it  costs  no  more  to  raise  a  pound  of  coarse  than  a  pound  of  fine  vjool. 
Nay,  a  pound  of  medium  Merino  wool  can  be  raised  more  cheaply  than 
a  pound  of  the  South-Down,  Leicester,  or  Cotswold  1  This  I  consider 
clearly  established. 

"  Grant  that  the  South  requires  a  much  greater  proportion  of  coarse  than 
of  fine  wool,  for  her  own  consui7)ption.  If  a  man  needing  iron  for  his  own 
consumption  wrought  a  mine  to  obtain  it,  in  which  he  should  happen  to 
find  gold  equally  accessible  and  plentiful,  would  it  be  economical  in  him 
to  neglect  the  more  precious  metal  because  he  wanted  to  use  the  iron  ? 
or  should  he  dig  the  gold,  obtain  the  iron  by  exchange,  and  pocket  the 
difiorence  in  value  ?  Would  it  be  economical  to  grow  a  sui-plus  wool, 
wool  for  market,  worth  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  cents  per  pound,  when 
it  costs  no  more  per  pound  to  grow  that  wortli  from  forty  to  forty-five 
cents  ?  And  even  for  the  home  want,  for  the  uses  of  the  plantation — 
for  slave-cloths,  etc. — fine  wool  is  worth  more  per  p)ound  than  coarse  for 
actual  wear  or  use  !  Is  this  proposition  new  and  incredible  to  you  ? 
I  challenge  the  fullest  investigation  of  its  truth,  through  the  testimony 
of  those  familiar  with  the  subject,  or  through  the  direct  ordeal  of  ex- 
periment. It  is  true  that  a  piece  of  fine  broadcloth  is  not  so  strong, 
nor  will  it  wear  like  a  Chelmsford  plain  of  treble  thickness.  The  threads 
of  the  former  are  spun  to  extreme  fineness  to  economize  the  jostly  raw 
material.  To  give  it  that  finish  which  is  demanded  by  fashion — to  give 
it  its  beautiful  nap — these  threads  are  still  further  reduced  by  "gigging" 
and  "shearing."  But  s})in  fine  wool  into  yarn  as  coarse  as  that  used  in 
Chehnsfords,  and  manufacture  it  in  the  same  way,  and  it  would  make  a 
far  stronger  and  more  durable  cloth.  The  reasons  are  obvious.  Merino 
wool  is  decidedly  stronger  than  the  English  coarse  long  and  middle 
wools — or  any  other  coarse  wools — in    proportion  to  its  diameter  or 


THE  SUKEP.  tS3 

bulk.  It  felts  far  better,  and  there  is  therefore  a  greater  cohesion 
between  the  different  fibers  of  the  same  thread,  and  between  the  differ- 
ent threads.  It  is  also  more  pliable  and  elastic,  and  consequently  less 
subject  to  "  breaking"  and  abrasion. 

"  Unless  the  views  I  have  advanced  are  singularly  erroneous,  it  M'ill  be 
seen  that,  for  wool-growing  purposes  the  Merino  possesses  a  marked  and 
decided  superiority  over  the  best  breeds  and  families  of  coarse-wooled 
sheep.  As  a  mutton  sheep,  it  is  inferior  to  some  of  those  breeds,  but  not 
so  much  so  as  is  generally  supposed.  If  required  to  consume  i\ie  fat  and 
lean  tof/('thf'7\  many  who  have  never  tasted  Merino  mutton,  and,  who  have 
an  unfavorable  impression  of  it,  would,  I  suspect,  find  it  more  palatable 
than  the  luscious  and  over-fat  New  Leicester.  The  mutton  of  the  cross 
between  the  Merino  and  "Native"  sheep  would  certainly  be  preferred 
to  the  Leicester,  by  any  body  but  an  English  laborer  used  to  the  latter. 
It  is  short-grained,  tender,  and  of  good  flavor.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
crosses  with  English  varieties.  These  will  be  hereafter,  more  particularly 
alluded  to.  Grade  Merino  wethers  (half-bloods)  are  favorites  with  the 
Northern  drover  and  butcher.  They  are  of  good  size — extraordinarily 
heavy  for  their  apparent  bulk^^ — make  good  mutton — tallow  well — and 
their  pelts,  from  the  greater  weight  of  wool  on  them,  command  an  extra 
price.  They  would,  in  my  opinion,  furnish  a  mutton  every  way  suitable 
for  plantation  consumption,  and  one  which  would  be  well  accepted  in 
the  Southern  markets. 

"In  speaking  of  the  Merino  in  this  connection,  I  have  in  all  cases, 
unless  it  is  distinctly  specified  to  the  contrary,  had  no  reference  to  the 
Saxons — though  they  are,  as  it  is  well  known,  pure-blooded  descendents 
of  the  former." 

GENERAL  MANAGEMENT  OF  SHEEP.— Their  Summer  Management.— The 

change  in  spring  from  dry  to  succulent  food,  produces  in  all  sheep  a 
certain  degree  of  scouring,  and  which,  if  precautions  have  not  been  taken 
to  guard  against  it,  soils  the  wool  on  the  hinder  parts  of  sheep,  and  its 
subsequent  removal  becomes  diflticult.  To  prevent  this,  every  sheep 
betbre  being  turned  to  grass  in  the  spring  should  have  that  portion  of 
the  wool  which  is  liable  thus  to  become  soiled  carefully  clipped  away, 
including  that  which  immediately  surrounds  the  roots  of  the  tail,  covers 
the  thighs,  the  bags  of  the  ewes,  etc.  This  operation  saves  the  wool,  which 
would  otherwise  be  lost,  the  animal  much  subsequent  suffering,  and  the 
owner  much  labor.  Tagging  sheep,  therefore,  should  not  be  neglected 
by  any  careful  shepherd. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  the  fields  in  which  sheep  are  to  run 
should  be  carefully  cleaned  of  every  variety  of  hwrr^  by  which  so  mueh 
wool  is  annually  lost  in  this  countiy,  being  so  matted  together  with  them 
as  to  be  of  little  comparative  value. 

Care  in  the  haniilitlg  of  Sheep  should  always  be  exercised.  They  never 
should  be  lifted  by  the  wool,  for,  as  the  skin  adheres  so  loosely,  it  is 
often  separated  from  the  body  by  the  act  of  lifting,  and  blood  has  often 
been  found  settled  beneath  the  parts  thus  improperly  handle<l.  The  legs 
or  necks  of  sheep  are  the  parts  by  which  only  they  should  be  seized ; 

*  On  account  of  the  shortness  of  their  wool,  compared  with  the  coarse  breede. 


I8i  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

and  for  catching  sheep  the  shepherd's  crook  is  a  very  simple  yet  very 
convenient  instrument.     It  is  thus  described  by  Mr.  Stephens : 

"The  hind-leg  is  hooked  in  from  behind  the  sheep,  and  it  fills  \vp  the 
narrow  part  beyond  while  passing  along  it  until  it  reaches  the  loop, 
Avhen  the  animal  is  caught  by  the  hock,  and  when  secured,  its  foot  easily 
slips  through  the  loop.  Some  caution  is  required  in  using  the  crook, 
for,  should  the  sheep  give  a  sudden  start  forward  to  get  away  the  mo- 
ment it  feels  the  crook,  the  leg  will  be  drawn  forcibly  through  the  nar- 
row part,  and  strike  the  bone  with  such  violence  against  the  bend  of  the 
loop  as  to  cause  the  animal  considerable  pain,  and  even  occasion  lame- 
ness for  some  days.  On  first  embracing  the  leg,  tlie  crook  should  be 
drawn  quickly  toward  you,  so  as  to  bring  the  bend  of  the  loop  against 
the  leg  as  high  up  as  the  hock,  before  the  sheep  has  time  even  to  break 
ofi",  and  being  secure,  its  struggles  will  cease  the  moment  your  hand 
seizes  the  leg." 

The  Season  of  Lambing  requires  the  shepherd's  especial  care.  From 
the  first  to  the  middle  of  May  is  the  best  season.  In  the  general  course 
of  breeding,  however,  it  is  desirable  that  the  lambs  should  not  fall  until 
the  cold  of  winter  is  over,  and  the  pasture  begins  to  aff"ord  some  food 
for  the  little  ones.  This  is  peculiarly  important  in  bleak  and  exposed 
situations.  Thousands  of  lambs  die  every  year  from  the  cold  to  which 
they  are  exposed  as  soon  as  they  arc  yeaned.  On  the  other  hand, 
there  may  be  some  inconvenience  and  danger  if  the  period  of  lambing 
is  too  late.  Hot  weather  is  as  fatal  to  the  mother  as  cold  is  to  the  oft- 
spring.  It  frequently  induces  a  dangerous  state  of  fever;  and  both 
the  mother  and  the  lamb  may  be  then  injured  by  the  luxuriance  of  the 
grass.  If  the  lamb  falls  late  in  the  season,  it  will  be  longer  ere  the 
ewe  can  be  got  ready  for  the  butcher,  and  the  ground  cleared  for  other 
stock;  and,  in  addition  to  this,  the  early  lambs  become  larger  and 
stronger,  and  better  able  to  resist  the  cold  of  the  succeeding  winter. 
The  yeaning  time  will,  therefore,  be  regulated  by  the  situation  of  the 
farm,  the  nature  of  the  pasture,  and  the  demand  from  the  neighboriug 
markets. 

The  duration  of  pregnancy  is  about  five  months,  or  one  hundred  and 
fifty-two  days,  with  comparatively  little  deviation.  As  the  end  of  this 
period  approaches — and  it  should  not  be  a  matter  of  memory  merely, 
but  of  record — the  fiock  should  receive  the  grazier's  watchful  attention. 
The  ewes  should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  fiock,  and  in  an  in- 
closure,  in  wiiich  is  a  shed  or  covert  from  the  storms,  which  are  so  com- 
mon, and  so  destructive  to  young  lambs. 

Care  of  the  Lambs. — It  is  the  duty,  and  would  be  the  interest,  of  the 
farmer  to  attend  to  the  comfort  of  his  ewes  and  lambs  at  this  period  ; 
the  lambing-field  should  always  be  a  sheltered  one,  and  there  should  be 
a  temporary  or  a  permanent  retreat  for  the  weakly  and  the  cold.  The 
first  care  of  the  shepherd  therefore  should  be  to  examine  the  newly- 
dropped  lamb.  If  they  are  chilled  and  scarcely  able  to  stand,  he  should 
give  them  a  little  of  the  milk,  which  he  carries  always  with  him,  and 
then  take  them  to  some  shelter,  or  place  them  in  a  basket  well  lined 
with  straw.  Nursing  of  this  kind  for  an  hour  or  two  will  usually  give 
the  animal  sufficient  strength  to  rt^oin  its  mother. 


THE   SHEEP.  185 

Nature  has  given  to  the  sheep,  as  well  as  to  other  animals,  an  instinct- 
ive and  strong  affection  for  its  young;  an  affection  whicli  strengthens 
in  proportion  to  the  necessities  of  the  parent  and  the  offspring.  The 
more  inhospitable  the  huid  is  on  which  they  feed,  the  greater  their 
kindness  and  attention  to  their  little  ones;  nevertheless,  it  will  occasion- 
ally happen  that  the  yonng  ewe,  in  the  pain  and  confusion  and  fright 
of  her  first  parturition,  abandons  her  lamb.  Some,  when  the  nddcr 
begins  to  fill,  will  search  it  out  again,  and  with  unerring  precision — 
others,  severed  from  their  offspring  before  they  had  become  acquainted 
with  its  form  and  scent,  are  eagerly  searching  for  it  all  over  the  field 
with  incessant  and  piteous  bleatins^s.  Some  will  be  hanging  over  their 
dead  offspring,  while  a  few^,  strangely  forgetting  that  thoy  are  mothers, 
are  grazitig  unconcernedly  with  the  rest  of  the  flock. 

There  is  another  circumstance  that  adds  to  the  confusion.  Some  of 
the  ewes  have  had  twins;  they  have  inadvertently  strayed  from  one  of 
them,  or  stupidly  or  capriciously  have  driven  it  from  them  ;  and  the 
neglected  one  is  wandering  about,  vainly  seeking  its  parent,  or  angrily 
repulsed  by  it. 

The  first  thing  a  lamber  has  to  do  is  to  remedy  as  well  as  he  can  this 
confusion.  He  first  seeks  out  for  those  that  have  twins,  and  that  have 
recognized  both  of  their  lambs,  and,  taking  his  little  marking-bottle  and 
marking-iron,  he  puts  a  particular  mark  on  each  of  the  twins,  by  which 
he  may  again  recognize  them,  and  on  each  pair  he  puts  a  different  mark. 
Jf  they  are  just  dropped,  and  are  weak,  he  leaves  them  for  a  while; 
but  if  they  are  able  to  travel  a  little,  he  drives  them  into  a  pound,  or 
into  a  corner  of  the  field  with  the  other  twins,  or  he  at  once  removes 
them  into  another  and  somew^hat  better  pasture,  which  he  had  destined 
for  the  twins. 

He  then  looks  for  the  lambs  that  have  apparently  been  abandoned  by 
tlie  mother,  and  if,  as  he  takes  one  of  them  up,  it  bleats,  he  will  pres- 
ently find  whether  there  is  any  responsive  call  or  gaze  of  recognition. 
If  the  mother  eagerly  calls  to  it,  he  has  but  to  put  it  down,  and  she 
will  speedily  rejoin  and  suckle  it,  if  it  is  strong  enough  to  raise  itself 
from  the  ground  for  this  purpose.  If  the  animal  is  almost  exhausted, 
he  must  catch  the  ewe,  and  assist  her  to  suckle  the  lamb.  It  will  soon 
revive,  and  her  love  for  it  will  revive  too.  If  she  merely  gives  a  care- 
less look  of  recognition,  he  must  suckle  the  lamb  from  his  bottle  of 
ewe's  milk,  and  leave  it  for  a  while ;  perhaps  her  affection  will  return 
when  her  udder  begins  to  be  distended  with  milk;  if  not,  he  must  drive 
her  with  others  into  a  fold,  and,  suffering  the  rest  to  escape,  try  every 
means  to  induce  her  to  let  the  little  one  suck.  There  may  be  consider- 
able difficulty  in  this  at  first,  but,  by  the  exercise  of  some  patience  and 
tact,  he  will  generally  succeed.  After  all,  however,  he  will  probably 
have  some  lambs  upon  his  hands  for  whom  he  cannot  find  a  mother,  or 
whose  own  mother  will  not  suckle  them. 

On  the  other  hand,  he  will  fiud  some  ewes  who  are  gazing  mournfully 
on  their  dead  lambs.  With  some  contrivance,  he  will  generally  find 
in  these  foster-mothers  for  his  abandoned  ones.  He  tics  a  piece  of 
cord  round  the  hind  feet  of  a  dead  lamb,  and  the  mother,  if  she  has 
not  been  unnecessarily  frightened  by  the  lamber,  or  his  dog,  will  follow 


186  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

for  miles  with  her  nose  close  to  tlie  lamb,  and  may  be  led  wherever  the 
shepherd  chooses. 

The  Substitute  Lamb. — The  bereaved  and  affectionate  ewe  is  induced 
to  follow  the  remains  of  her  little  one  to  the  lambinp;  pound,  or  to  some 
other  convenient  place.  A  lamb  that  has  lost,  or  been  abandoned  by- 
its  mother  is  then  selected.  The  head,  tail,  and  legs  of  the  dead  lamb 
are  cut  off;  an  incision  is  made  along  the  belly,  and  the  body  turned 
out,  and  this  skin  is  then  drawn  over  the  substitute  lamb.  The  body 
of  the  dead  lamb  is  opened,  the  liver  taken  out,  and  the  head  and  legs 
of  the  living  lamb,  and  what  other  parts  the  skin  does  not  cover,  are 
smeared  with  blood.  In  the  darkness  of  the  night,  and  after  the  skin 
has  been  warmed  on  it,  so  as  to  give  something  of  the  smell  of  her  own 
progeny,  the  substitute  is  put  to  the  bereaved  ewe.  In  the  majority  of 
cases  the  fraud  is  altogether  successful,  and  the  impostor  is  at  once 
received,  and  fondled,  and  suckled.  This  being  effected,  the  shepherd 
hastens  to  remove  the  false  clothing;  the  lamb  is  returned  to  her,  and 
"  whether  it  is  from  joy  at  this  apparent  reanimation  of  her  young  one, 
or  because  a  little  doubt  remains  on  her  mind,  which  she  would  fain  dis- 
pel, cannot  be  decided  ;  but  for  a  number  of  days  she  shows  more  fond- 
ness by  bleating  over  and  caressing  this  one,  than  she  did  formerly  over 
the  one  that  was  really  her  own." 

If  she  docs  not  take  to  it  at  first,  she  must  be  compelled  to  suckle  it, 
and  confined  so  that  she  shall  not  be  able  to  kick  or  otherwise  hurt  it. 
In  two  or  three  days  she  will  generally  own  it,  and  then  they  may  be 
turned  together  into  the  field  without  any  apprehension  or  trouble. 

Care,  however,  should  be  taken  that  the 'age  of  the  substitute  lamb 
and  that  of  the  true  one  should  correspond  as  much  as  possible.  If  a 
lamb  lately  dropped  is  put  to  a  ewe  whose  young  one  would  have  been 
a  week  or  two  old,  the  milk  will  be  too  strong,  and  a  purging  wnll  be 
set  up,  which,  probably,  no  medicine  can  arrest.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
the  substitute  lamb  is  a  week  or  two  old,  and  the  foster-mother  had  lost 
hers  in  the  act  of  yeaning,  her  milk  will  be  injurious  on  account  of  that 
purgative  quality  by  which  the  intestines  of  the  newly-dropped  lamb 
are  first  excited  to  action.  Sometimes  the  foster-lamb,  frightened  or 
exhausted,  will  not  readily  take  the  teat,  how^ever  disposed  the  ewe  may 
be  to  adopt  and  feed  it.  Care  should  be  taken  to  ascertain  whether  this 
is  the  case,  and,  if  necessary,  the  lamb  should  be  held  while  a  little  of 
the  milk  is  pressed  into  its  mouth  from  the  udder.  This  will  rarely 
need  to  be  repeated,  for  instinct  will  teach  it  where  to  seek  and  how  to 
obtain  its  proper  nutriment. 

Aftpr-l'are  of  the  Lambs. — In  the  course  of  a  little  more  than  a  week, 
the  great  majority  of  the  ewes  will  have  produced  their  young,  and  the 
laniber  will  have  more  leisure  for  those  cases  which  particularly  require 
his  attention.  The  twin  field  will  particularly  demand  his  care.  He 
will  seldom  enter  it  on  the  morning  without  finding  some  degree  of  con- 
fusion. Some  of  the  lambs  will  have  strayed  from  or  been  abandoned 
by  their  mothers;  and  these  twin-mothers  are  sometimes  not  a  little  ca- 
pricious-,and  especially  wlicn,  not  having sufticient  milk  for  the  two,  they 
are  teased  and  worried  by  the  incessant  sucking  of  the  twins.  In  such 
case  they  will,  in  the  most  determined  and  furious  manner,  repulse  one 


THE  SHEEP.  187 

of  them.  Amid  the  intermingling  of  the  offspring  of  the  diftere'3^-  ewes  he 
\\\\\  find  the  advantage  of  liaving  marked  the  respective  twins,  and  thus, 
aIthoui);li  not  always  without  regularly  drawing  them  off,  he  will  be  en- 
abled properly  to  separate  tlie  respective  families:  he  will  relieve  the 
weakly  ewe  from  a  burden  which  she  cannot  support;  and,  on  the  other 
liand,  he  will  reconcile  the  deserted  little  one  to  its  unnatural  parent,  or 
find  a  better  mother  for  it.  The  ewes  with  their  single  lambs  will  not,  after 
a  few  days,  require  any  extraordinary  degree  of  trouble,  but  those  with 
twins  must  be  carefully  watched,  at  least  until  the  lambs  begin  in  good 
cjvrnest  to  graze.  Many  a  lamb  has  been  stinted  in  its  growth,  and 
irreparably  injured,  by  the  insufficient  supply  of  milk  which  the  ewe 
with  twins  can  afford. 

Twins. — This  is  the  proper  place  to  speak  of  the  desirableness  of  hav- 
ing many  twins.  Most  breeders  are  partial  to  them,  on  account  of  the 
apparent  rapid  increase  of  the  flock,  or  the  additional  quantity  of  lambs 
that  can  be  prepared  for  the  market.  The  question  depends  entirely  on 
the  quantity  of  land  which  the  fiirmer  holds,  and  the  nature  of  the  soil. 
If  he  has  pasture  enough,  and  good  enough,  twins  are  highly  desirable; 
for  at  only  the  usual  expense  before  the  yeaning  time,  the  number  of 
liis  lambs  is  doubled,  and,  the  pasture  being  good  and  the  lambs  well 
fed,  there  will  be  very  little  difference  in  health,  condition,  or  value,  be- 
tween the  twins  and  the  single  lamb. 

The  ewe  seldom  has  twins  at  her  first  yeaning;  and  it  is  fortunate 
that  she  has  not;  for  it  is  seldom  that  she  has  any  great  supply  of  milk 
then,  and,  consequently,  the  mother  and  her  offspring  would  equally 
suffer.  The  twins  are  generally  obtained  from  ewes  that  are  three, 
four,  or  five  years  old.  The  disposition  to  twinning  is  undoubtedly 
hereditary.  There  are  certain  rams  that  have  the  credit  of  being  twin- 
getters,  and  that  faculty  usually  descends  to  their  offspring;  but  this  is 
oftener  the  case  with  regard  to  the  ewe,  agreeably  to  the  old  couplet : 

"Ewes,  yearly  by  twinning,  rich  masters  do  make: 
The  lambs  of  such  twinners  for  breeders  go  take." 

The  female  of  every  species  of  animal  has  far  more  to  do  with  this  un- 
usual multiplication  of  the  offspring  than  has  the  male;  and  the  farmer 
who  wishes  rapidly  to  increase  his  stock  through  the  medium  of  twins, 
may  go  some  way  tow^ard  the  accomplishment  of  Ijis  object  by  placing 
his  ewes  on  somewhat  better  pasture,  or  allowing  them  a  few  turnips 
when  November  approaches. 

The  Manageilieiil  of  the  Lamhs, — We  return  once  more  to  the  lambs, 
now  a  few  days  old.  The  old  ewes  will  prove  assiduous  and  faithful 
nurses,  but  the  young  ones  will  occasionally  Avander  from  their  lambs, 
and  prove  inattentive  to  or  have  not  recognized  their  bleatings.  Such 
mothers  must  be  separated  from  the  flock,  and  folded  and  confined  with 
their  young  ones,  until  they  appear  to  be  disposed  faithfully  to  do  their 
duty.  Some  lambs  refuse  the  attention  of  the  mother,  and  lie  weak  or 
sullen,  and  droop  away  and  die.  Some  of  the  mother's  milk  should  be 
frequently  introduced  into  the  mouth  ;  and,  if  that  has  not  the  desired 
effect,  a  foster-mother  must,  if  possible,  be  found  ;  or  the  little  churl  must 
be  brought  up  by  the  hand.     There  will,  generally  speaking,  be  very 


188  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

little  difficulty  about  this.  If  it  is  at  first  fed  with  warm  sheep's  or  cow's 
milk,  by  means  of  a  spoon,  until  it  is  old  enough  to  suck  out  of  a  suck- 
ing-bottle, it  will  soon  begin  to  bleat  for  its  food,  and  greedily  meet  the 
bottle  the  moment  that  it  is  presented  to  it, 

The  cuckoo  lambs  will  require  the  particular  attention  of  the  shep- 
herd. They  are  those  that  are  dropped  later  than  the  others,  when  the 
cuckoo  is  just  making  his  appearance,  and  after  whom  they  are  nained. 
Thev  are  usually  the  progeny  of  very  young  or  very  old  mothers,  who 
were  not  impregnated  so  soon  as  the  others,  and  who  generally  are  not 
so  strong  and  so  hardy  as  the  rest  of  the  flock.  Care  must  be  taken 
that  they  have  suflicient,  yet  not  too  nutritive  food  ;  and  that  the  dis- 
eases to  which  weakly  lambs  are  subject  are  promptly  attended  to. 

Some  ewes  will  permit  other  lambs  beside  their  own  to  suck  them, 
and  then  there  will  possibly  be  one  or  more  greedy  lambs,  who  will 
wander  about  from  ewe  to  ewe,  robbing  the  rightful  owner  of  the  greater 
part  of  his  share.  He  and  his  mother  must  be  removed  to  another  pas- 
ture, where  he  will  soon  learn  to  satisfy  his  voracious  appetite  with  the 
grass.  As  the  shepherd  takes  his  round  he  should  inspect  every  lamb. 
If  one  does  not  appear  to  thrive,  he  should  endeavor  to  ascertain  the 
cause.  Has  the  mother  any  or  suflicient  milk  ?  Are  the  teats  free  from 
disease?  He  should  either  supply  the  deficient  nutriment,  or  provide  a 
foster-mother.  Does  the  milk  disagree  with  the  lamb?  Is  there  any 
or  considerable  purging?  The  calves  and  sheep's  cordial  must  be  im- 
mediately resorted  to;  and,  if  necessary,  nursing,  or  separation  from  the 
mother.  '  In  two  or  three  weeks,  and  often  considerably  sooner,  the 
lambs  will  begin  to  nibble  a  little  grass.  Is  it  too  luxuriant  for  them,  or 
has  it  been  eaten  down  close  by  the  ewes,  and  is  tl^e  owner  thinking  of 
providing  a  fresh  pasture  ?  Let  him  beware  !  There  is  no  situation  in 
which  the  old  advice  of  not  making  "more  haste  and  good  speed" 
should  be  more  carefully  heeded  than  in  this.  If  one  paramount  cause 
of  disease,  and  fatal  disease  to  lambs,  were  selected,  it  would  be  a  sud- 
den change  from  bare  to  luxuriant  pasture.  It  often  sets  up  a  degree  of 
inflammatory  fever,  which  no  depletion  will  extinguish,  or  a  diarrhoea 
which  no  astringent  can  check. 

The  technical  term  which  the  shepherd  applies  to  the  lamb  diseased 
from  this  cause  is  gall-lamb.  The  liver  seems  to  be  the  principal  seat  of 
inflammation,  and  a  great  quantity  of  bile  ov gall  is  found  in  the  duodenum 
and  small  intestines;  a  portion  of  it  has  frequently  regurgitated  into  the 
abomasum  or  fourth  stomach,  and  some  has  entered  into  the  circulation, 
and  tinged  the  skin  and  flesh  of  a  yellow  color.  It  is  a  disease  which 
very  speedily  runs  its  course;  occasionally  carrying  off"  its  victims  in  a 
little  more  than  twelve  hours,  and  seldom  lasting  more  than  three  days. 
Immediate  bleeding  in  the  early  stage,  and  afterward  Epsom  salts,  with 
a  small  portion  of  ginger,  will  aflford  the  only  chance  of  a  cure.  The 
poor  animal  is  often  condemned  and  slaughtered  at  once — that  is  bar- 
barous work. 

Castration. — There  is  a  great  diff'ercnce  of  opinion  as  to  the  time  when 
the  tup-lambs  that  are  not  intended  to  be  kept  for  breeding  should  be 
castrated.  Some  recommend  the  performance  of  this  operation  as  early 
as  three  days  after  the  birth.     Mr.  Parkinson  says  that  "  he  has  several 


I 


THE    SHEEP.  189 

times  cut  a  lamb  the  very  day  that  it  was  lambed,  when  strong  and 
healthy,  and  that  he  never  knew  one  do  ill  from  the  operation."  The 
proper  period  depends  a  great  deal  on  the  weather,  and  on  the  stoutness 
of  the  lamb,  and  varies  from  the  third  or  fourth  to  the  fourteenth  or 
twenty-first  day,  the  weather  being  cool  or  even  cold,  and  somewhat 
moist.  It  would  be  highly  improper  and  dangerous  to  select  a  day  un- 
usually warm  for  the  season  of  the  year.  The  absence  of  unusual 
warmth,  and  the  health  of  the  animal  to  be  operated  upon,  are  the  cir- 
cumstances which  should  have  most  influence  in  determining  the  time. 

There  are  two  methods  of  performing  the  operation.  The  lamb  being 
well  secured,  the  operator  grasps  the  scrotum  or  bag,  and  forces  the  tes- 
ticles down  to  the  bottom  of  it.  He  then  cuts  a  slit  across  the  bottom 
of  the  bag,  in  a  direction  from  behind  forward,  through  the  substance 
of  the  bag,  and  large  enough  to  admit  of  the  escape  of  the  testicles. 
They  immediately  protrude  through  the  incision,  being  forced  down  by 
the  pressure  above.  The  operator  then  seizes  one  of  them,  and  draws 
it  so  far  out  of  the  bag  that  a  portion  of  the  cord  is  seen  ;  and  then,  if 
he  is  one  of  the  old  school,  he  seizes  the  cord  between  his  teeth  and 
gnaws  through  it.  This  is  a  very  filthy  practice,  and  inflicts  some  un- 
necessary pain.  The  testicle  being  thus  separated,  the  cord  retracts  into 
the  scrotum,  and  is  no  more  seen.  The  other  testicle  is  brought  out 
and  operated  upon  in  a  similar  manner.  Very  little  bleeding  ensues — 
and  the  young  one  may  be  returned  to  its  mother.  An  improvement 
on  this  operation,  and  which  any  one  except  of  the  lowest  grade  would 
adopt,  is  to  use  a  blunt  knife  instead  of  the  teeth.  By  the  sawing  action 
which  such  a  knife  renders  necessary,  the  artery  is  even  more  conipletely 
torn  than  with  the  teeth;  and  yet  without  so  much  bruising  of  the  part, 
and  probability  of  ensuing  inflammation.  It  is  by  the  laceration,  in- 
stead of  the  simple  division  of  the  cord,  that  after-bleeding  is  pre- 
vented. ^ 

Another  way  of  performing  the  operation  is  to  push  the  testicles  up 
toward  the  belly,  and  then,  grasping  the  scrotum,  to  cut  oft'  a  sufficient 
portion  of  the  bottom  of  the  bag  to  admit  of  the  escape  of  the  testi- 
cles when  they  are  again  let  down.  They  are,  one  after  the  other, 
pushed  out,  and  taken  off"  in  the  manner  already  directed.  The  wound 
is  considerably  longer  in  healing  when  the  base  of  the  bag  is  thus  cut 
away,  and  the  animal  consequently  sufl'ers  more  pain.  The  first  is  the 
preferable  way,  if  the  incision  is  made  sufficiently  long  to  prevent  its 
closure  for  two  or  three  days,  thus  leaving  an  outlet  for  the  escape  of 
the  blood  and  pus  from  the  inside  of  the  bag. 

There  is  usually  little  or  no  danger  attending  the  operation,  and  yet 
occasionally  it  is  strangely  fatal.  In  a  whole  flock  not  a  single  lamb 
will  sometimes  be  lost;  but  at  other  times  the  deaths  will  be  fearfully 
numerous,  the  same  person  having  operated  on  both  occasions.  Much, 
probably,  depended  on  some  peculiar  state  of  the  atmosphere,  of  the 
actual  nature  of  which  we  know  nothing  at  all;  and  more  probably 
might  be  connected  with  a  disposition  to  inflammation  in  the  patient 
proceeding  from  too  high  feeding,  or  from  a  debilitated  state  of  the 
frame,  and  which  had  not  been  observed  or  properly  estimated. 

When  fatal  disease  occurs  after  castration  it  usually  assumes  the  form 


190  DOMESTIC   ANDktALS. 

of  tetanus,  or  loclved-jaw.  The  village  operator  pretends  to  tell  when 
this  will  or  will  not  supervene.  The  usual  struggles  of  the  animal,  or 
the  usual  expressions  of  pain,  he  does  not  regard  ;  but  when,  as  he  is 
gnawing  the  cord  asunder  with  his  teeth,  he  feels  a  deep  and  universal 
shudder  of  the  animal,  he  says  at  once  that  that  lamb  will  die.  He  is 
often  right  about  this,  and  when  he  is,  it  can  be  easily  explained.  By 
the  fearful  torture  he  has  intlicted,  he  has  caused  a  shock  of  the  whole 
of  the  nervous  system,  from  which  the  poor  sufferer  can  never  perfectly 
recover. 

Occasionally,  when  the  lamb  that  was  selected  as  a  breeder  does  not 
turn  out  well,  it  is  necessary,  in  order  to  fatten  him  and  to  make  his 
flesh  salable,  to  castrate  him.  There  are  various  ways  of  performing 
this  operation  on  tlie  young  or  fully  adult  sheep.  Some  proceed  pre- 
cisely as  with  the  horse.  An  incision  is  made  into  the  scrotum;  the 
testicle  is  forced  out,  the  iron  clamps  are  put  on  the  cord,  which  is  then 
divided  between  the  clamp  and  the  testicle,  and  the  cautery  is  had  re- 
course to  in  order  to  sear  the  part  and  prevent  bleeding.  This  opera- 
tion usually  succeeds  well,  but  it  is  not  every  operator  on  sheep  that  has 
the  clamps  or  the  tiring-iron. 

The  preferable  way  of  operating  is,  to  tie  a  waxed  cord  as  tightly  as 
possible  round  the  scrotum  above,  and  quite  clear  of  the  testicles.  The 
circulation  will  here  also  be  completely  stopped,  and  usually  in  two  or 
three  days  the  scrotum  and  the  testicles  will  drop  off.  Accidents  have 
occurred,  but  which  are  attributable  to  the  operator;  he  has  included 
a  portion  of  the  testicle  in  the  ligature,  and  thus  laid  the  foundation  for 
very  great  and  fatal  inflammation  ;  or  he  has  used  too  large  a  cord,  and 
which  could  not  be  drawn  sufficiently  tight;  or  the  knot  has  slackened 
and  the  ligature  has  pressed  sufficiently  to  produce  excessive  inflamma- 
tion and  torture,  but  not  completely  to  cut  off  the  supply  of  blood. 
Care  being  taken  in  the  application  of  the  cord  to  the  exact  part,  and 
the  tightening  of  the  ligature,  the  animal  seems  scarcely  to  suftVr  any 
pain  ;  indeed,  the  nerves  are  evidently  deadened  by  the  compression  of 
the  cord,  and  no  accident  occurs. 

Docking. — There  is  much  variety  of  opinion  among  sheep- masters  as 
to  the  time  when  this  operation  should  be  performed.  Some,  like  Mr. 
Parkinson,  think  that  it  should  be  done  within  a  very  few  days  after 
the  birth  ;  the  ewes  on  the  first,  second,  or  third  day,  and  the  male 
lambs  when  they  are  castrated.  The  author  of  the  "Complete  Gra- 
zier" would  defer  it  until  the  lambs  are  three  or  four  months  old.  This 
must  depend  on  the  state  of  the  weather,  and  the  health  of  the  animals. 
No  one  should  dock  his  lambs  when  the  weather  is  very  cold,  because 
the  bushy  tail's  of  the  animals  afford  a  great  deal  of  warmth.  On  this 
account,  in  particularly  exposed  situations,  it  is  deferred  until  the  warm 
weather  sets  thorouglily  in,  and  by  some,  and  particularly  with  their 
ewes,  not  practiced  at  all.  The  tail  certainly  aflfords  both  protection 
and  warmth  to  the  udder,  and  likewise  defense  against  the  dreadful 
annoyance  of  the  flics  in  hot  weather;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  per- 
mits the  accumulation  of  a  great  deal  of  filth,  and,  if  the  lamb  or  the 
sheep  should  labor  under  diarrhoea,  and  the  shepherd  should  be  some- 
what negligent,  the  tail  may  cling  to  the  haunches,  and  that  so  closely 


THE    SHEEP.  191 

as  to  form  an  almost  insuperable  obstruction  to  the  passac^e  of  the 
faeces.  It  likewise  can  scarcely  be  denied  that  the  removal  of  the  tail 
very  much  improves  the  beauty  of  the  animal,  by  the  fullness  and  width 
which  it  seems  to  impart  to  the  haunches. 

The  operation  is  a  very  simple  one.  An  assistant  holds  the  lamb 
with  its  back  pressing  against  his  belly,  and  thus  presenting  the  haunches 
to  the  operator,  who,  with  a  knife,  or  a  strong  pair  of  scissors  or  forceps, 
cuts  it  otf  at  the  second  or  third  joint  from  the  rump.  A  few  ashes  are 
then  sprinkled  on  the  wound — common  flour  would  do  as  well,  in  order 
to  form  a  coagulum  over  the  part  and  stop  the  bleeding.  It  is  seldom 
that  the  bleeding  will  continue  long;  but,  if  the  lamb  should  appear  to 
be  growing  weak  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of  blood,  a  piece  of  twine 
tied  tightly  round  the  tail,  immediately  above  the  dock,  will  at  once 
arrest  the  hemorrhage ;  the  twine,  however,  must  be  removed  twelve 
hours  afterward,  otherwise  some  sloughing  will  ensue,  and  care  must 
likewise  be  taken  that  the  incision  is  made  precisely  in  the  joint,  other- 
wise the  wound  will  not  heal  until  the  portion  of  bone  between  the  dock 
and  the  joint  above  has  sloughed  away. 

Spaying. — A  few  weeks  after  castrating  the  spaying  of  the  rejected 
ewe-lambs  will  succeed,  an  operation  which  will  materially  contribute  to 
their  increase  of  growth  and  disposition  to  fatten.  It  is  singular  that 
this  practice  should  be  almost  contined  to  Great  Britain  and  to  Italy,  for 
there  can  be  no  manner  of  doubt  of  the  advantage  of  it.  Daubcnton, 
however,  in  his  "  Instructions  to  Shepherds,"  gives  a  useful  account  of 
the  manner  in  which  it  is  best  performed. 

At  the  age  of  six  weeks,  the  ovaries  ai-e  grown  sufficiently  large  to 
be  easily  felt,  and  that  is  the  time  usually  selected  for  the  spaying,  be- 
ing immediately  after  the  first  formal  examination  of  the  flock.  The 
lamb  is  laid  on  her  right  side,  near  the  edge  of  a  table,  with  her  head 
hanging  down  by  the  side  of  the  table;  an  assistant  stretches  out  the 
left  hind-leg  of  the  animal,  and  holds  it  in  that  situation,  with  liis  left 
hand  grasping  the  shank;  and  in  default  of  a  second  assistant,  he  also 
liolds  the  two  fore-legs,  and  the  other  hind-leg  with  his  right  hand. 
The  lamb  being  thus  disposed,  the  operator,  tightening  the  skin  of  the 
part,  makes  an  incision  of  an  inch  and  a  half  in  length,  midway  be- 
tween the  top  of  the  haunch  and  the  navel,  and  penetrating  through 
the  skin  ;  another  incision  divides  the  muscles  of  the  belly  and  the  per- 
itoneum. A  careful  operator  will,  perhaps,  make  three  incisions,  the 
first  through  the  skin,  the  second  tlirough  the  abdominal  muscles,  and 
the  third  through  the  peritoneum.  lie  then  introduces  his  forefinger 
into  the  abdominal  cavity,  in  search  of  the  left  ovary,  which  is  immedi- 
ately underneath  the  incision  ;  and,  having  found  it,  he  draws  it  gently 
out.  The  two  broad  ligaments,  and  the  womb  and  the  right  ov;ir\', 
protrude  at  the  same  time.  The  operator  cuts  off  the  two  ovaries,  and 
returns  the  womb  and  its  dependencies;  he  then  closes  the  womb  by 
means  of  two  or  three  stitches  through  the  skin,  carefully  avoiding  the 
abdominal  muscles  below;  and,  last  of  all,  he  rubs  a  little  oil  on  the 
v>'ound,  or  he  does  nothing  more,  but  releases  his  patient. 

The  lamb  very  probably  will  be  unwilling,  and  perhaps  will  alto- 
gether refuse  to  suck  or  to  graze  during  the  first  day,  but  on  the  follow- 


192  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

ing  days  he  will  feed  as  usual.  In  ten  or  twelve  days  the  wound  will 
have  perfectly  healed,  and  the  threads  may  be  cut  and  taken  away. 
The  only  thing  to  be  feared  is  inflammation  of  the  peritoneum,  which 
was  divided  in  the  operation;  but  this  rarely  occurs,  and,  on  the  whole, 
there  is  not  so  much  danger  in  the  spaying  of  the  ewe-lamb,  as  in  the 
castration  of  the  tup. 

Sheep-Washing. — This  is  best  done  in  vats  constructed  for  the  purpose, 
and  where  large  flocks  are  to  be  washed,  the  expense  and  care  are  well 
repaid.  These  vats  are  to  be  so  located  as  that  the  waCer  can  be  con- 
veniently let  into  them  by  spouts,  and  a  small  stream,  dammed  up,  will 
answer  the  purpose.  The  vat  should  be  about*  three  and  a  half  feet 
deep,  and  of  such  size  as  to  admit  two  spouts  to  flow  into  it  at  the  upper 
end,  at  which  two  men  can  wash,  while  two  others  can  be  so  employed 
at  its  lower  end  and  over  which  the  water  flows.  The  vat  should  have 
a  gate  to  draw  off"  the  water  as  often  as  fifty  sheep  are  washed.  A  plat- 
form should  connect  the  top  of  the  vat  with  the  sheep-yards,  of  which 
there  should  be  two,  one  to  contain  the  unwashed,  and  the  other  the 
washed  sheep  ;  lambs,  on  account  of  their  liability  to  accident,  should  not 
be  driven  with  the  flocks  to  the  washing-pens.  The  operation  of  wash- 
ing is  facilitated,  and  rendered  much  easier  by  heavy  rains  immediately 
preceding  it,  and  which  have  thoroughly  saturated  the  fleeces.  Sheep 
are  more  generally  injured  while  washing  than  in  any  other  way,  and 
hence,  at  this  time  the  utmost  care  is  needed  in  handling  them. 

Sheep-Slicariug. — This,  in  fair  weather,  may  be  done  in  from  five  to  six 
days  after  washing.  The  operation  should  always  be  carefully  done, 
and  by  those  only  who  are  experts  in  the  art.  This  is  equally  dictated 
by  the  true  interest  of  the  wool-grower — as  by  no  others  can  the  fleeces 
be  kept  and  put  into  proper  merchantable  shape — and  by  humanity,  as 
clumsy  shearers  clip  and  mutilate,  and  otherwise  often  shamefully  abuse 
the  uncomplaining  sheep. 

Every  thing  being  arranged,  a  shearer  seizes  a  sheep,  and  sets  it  on  its 
rump,  and  keeps  it  in  this  position  by  resting  the  back  against  his  own 
legs.  He  removes  all  straws,  thorns  burs,  etc.,  that  may  have  adhered 
to  the  wool.  While  thus  held,  the  wool  is  removed  from  the  head  and 
neck  as  far  as  the  shoulders,  and  also  from  the  belly,  the  scrotum,  and 
the  edge  of  the  thighs.  The  head  of  the  animal  is  then  bent  down 
sidewise,  and  the  shearer,  placing  a  leg  on  each  side  of  the  neck  of  the 
sheep,  pushes  out  the  opposite  ribs  by  pressing  his  knees  gently  against 
the  ribs  that  are  nearest  to  him.  He  next  shears  the  wool  from  the  far 
side  with  his  left  hand,  from  the  belly  to  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  as 
far  down  as  the  loins.  The  sheep  is  now  turned,  and  the  right  hand  is 
employed  to  shear  the  wool  from  the  near  side.  The  sheep  is  then  laid 
flat  on  its  side,  and  kept  down  by  the  shearer  with  his  face  toward  the 
rump  of  the  sheep,  resting  his  right  knee  on  the  ground  in  front  of  the 
neck,  and  his  right  toe  being  brought  to  the  ground  a  little  behind  and 
below  the  poll ;  the  head  and  neck  of  the  sheep  are  thus  confined  by  his 
right  leg,  while  he  uses  his  right  hand  to  shear  the  wool  from  the  hind 
quarter.  In  this  way  the  clips  of  the  shears  will  appear  in  concentric 
rings  round  the  body  of  the  sheep.  The  dirty  portions  of  wool  about 
the  tail  are  then  removed  by  the  shears  and  kept  by  themselves ;  the 


THE  SHEEP.  193 

outside  of  the  fleece  is  folded  inward,  beginning  at  the  sides,  and  narrow- 
ing the  whole  fleece  into  a  strip  about  two  feet  wide.  This  strip  is 
then  rolled  finnly  up  from  the  tail  end  toward  the  neck. 

WINTER  MA\AGE}1ENT.— Sheds,  to  shield  sheep  from  cold  rains,  sleety 
storms,  and  from  piercing  winds,  are  at  once  dictated  by  humanity  and 
true  economy ;  but  every  arrangement  for  thus  housing  sheep  should 
provide  for  free  ventilation,  as  the  health  of  none  other  of  our  domestic 
animals  is  so  entirely  dependent  on  pure  air  as  that  of  the  sheep. 

Winter  Food. — ILiy  is  the  staple  winter  food  of  sheep  in  the  United 
States.  Morrell,  in  The  American  Shepherd^  states  the  daily  quantity, 
in  cold  weather,  which  a  sheep  weighing  one  hundred  pounds  will  con- 
sume, at  two  and  a  half  pounds ;  and  if  every  one  hundred  sheep  should 
have  a  daily  supply  of  from  six  to  eight  quarts  of  corn,  or  its  equivalent 
in  cut  potatoes  or  other  roots,  the  increased  thrift  of  the  flock,  and 
their  larger  return  of  better  wool,  would  richly  repay  the  extra  cost  and 
trouble. 

When  the  foddering  season  arrives,  the  flock  should  be  arranged  into 
as  many  apartments  as  circumstances  will  admit.  A  small  one  of  the 
oldest  and  poorest  should  have  the  preference  as  to  accommodation  and 
attention,  and  to  it  should  be  added  occasionally  such  as  may  from  any 
cause  be  declining;  and  such  as  have  sufficiently  recruited  in  this  de- 
partment may  give  place  to  them.  This  flock  should  be  fed  with  grain 
and  roots,  as  their  condition  and  circumstances  may  require,  through 
the  winter.  So  with  the  lambs,  a  flock  of  the  smallest  and  poorest  should 
be  managed  in  the  same  way. 

When  assorting  and  arranging  for  the  winter,  the  feet  and  toes  of  all 
should  be  cut  and  trimmed  to  a  proper  shape  ;  and  the  ends  of  the  horns 
of  all  such  as  incline  to  branch  out  should  be  sawed  oflf.  The  whole 
should  have  free  access  to  water  and  salt  through  the  winter,  and  should 
be  fed  with  hay,  in  boxes,  plentifully  and  regularly  three  times  a  day  ; 
under  cover  when  cold  or  stormy,  outside  when  fair,  if  more  convenient; 
and  in  rain-storms  should  be  confined  under  cover.  It  is  convenient  to 
let  them  have  free  access  to  straw,  in  boxes,  at  all  times,  and  occasion- 
ally a  change  of  the  different  kinds  of  hay  and  corn  fodder.  The  sheds 
should  at  all  times  be  well  littered. 

The  proper  time  to  put  bucks  with  ewes  is  the  first  of  December, 
which  is  generally  after  they  are  arranged  for  winter,  and  that  arrange- 
ment should  be  made  with  reference  to  that  object,  allowing  but  one 
buck  to  a  flock;  and  no  wether  should  be  allowed  in  a  flock  with  a 
buck,  as  his  presence  creates  suspicion,  and  disturbs  the  quiet  so  neces- 
sary to  the  desired  performance.  The  number  of  ewes  to  a  buck  will 
vary  according  to  his  age,  vigor,  and  keeping;  a  full-grown,  vigorous 
one,  well  fed,  will  serve  one  hundred ;  the  same,  without  extra  feed, 
will  serve  fifty;  young  ones  from  thirty  to  forty.  The  bucks  should  be 
painted  on  the  breast  to  make  apparent  their  progress.  Four  weeks  is 
sufficient  time  for  them  to  remain  with  the  ewes;  after  that,  there  is 
danger  of  the  ewes  being  injured  by  their  ungallant  and  knock-down 
propensities. 

MEDICINES  EMPLOYED  IN  THE  TREATMENT  OF  SHEEP.— Simple  medi- 
cines ought  to  be  in  the  possession  of  the  farmer  for  instant  use  incases 
9 


191  DOMESTIC    ANESIALS. 

of  cmerc^cricy;  but  the  administration  of  the  more  potent  drugs  ought 
to  be  intrusted  to  the  veterinary  surgeon,  hy  whom  alone  all  important 
operations  ouglit  to  be  performed.  Kead's  enema  and  stomach-pump 
adapted  to  siieep,  should  be  in  every  breeder's  hands,  and  kept  con- 
stantly ready  for  use.  In  the  treatment  of  many  of  the  diseases  of 
sheep^  the  advantages  of  purgative  or  of  sedative  injections  are  too  much 
overlooked.  Aperient  injections  may  consist  of  a  liandful  of  common 
salt,  or  an  ounce  or  two  ounces  of  Epsom  salts,  with  a  wineglassful  of 
linseed  oil,  mixed  in  a  pint  of  water  or  thin  gruel.  Sedative  injections, 
in  cases  of  diarrhoea  and  dysentery,  may  consist  of  a  pint  of  gruel  or 
starch,  with  three  or  four  grains  of  powdered  opium,  or  fifty  drops  of 
hiudanum. 

Ap"ri(!llts. — In  administering  medicines  to  the  sheep,  the  fluid  should 
be  allowed  to  trickle  slowly  and  gently  down  the  gullet  or  oesophagus, 
as  we  have  already  urged  in  the  case  of  the  ox,  and  for  the  same  rea- 
sons— the  structure  of  the  stomach  being  in  both  animals  on  the  same 
plan.  To  give  medicine  in  a  hurried  manner,  so  as  to  force  the  animal 
to  gulp  it,  is  to  defeat  the  very  object  intended;  it  will  force  the  pillars 
of  the  oesophagean  canal,  enter  the  insensible  paunch,  and  there  con- 
tinue inert.  It  may  here  be  as  well  to  observe,  that  the  doses  of  medi- 
cine for  sheep,  in  general  are  about  one-sixth  in  cjuantity  of  what  are 
usually  given  to  cattle.  Young  lambs  require  only  a  third,  or  half  the 
quantity  of  medicine  constituting  a  dose  for  an  adult  sheep. 

The  following  medicines  are  the  most  valuable  aperients: 

Common  Sjilf  (Chloride  of  Sodium  or  Muriate  of  Soda). — Salt  is  a  tonic 

in  moderate  doses,  and  of  great  benefit  in  the  rot.  It  should  always 
be  accessible  to  the  flock.  In  doses  of  one  or  two  ounces,  dissolved  in 
four  or  six  ounces  of  gruid,  it  forms  an  excellent  aperient. 

Epsom  Salts  (SulphalC  of  Magnesia). — An  excellent  purgative,  and  that 
which  is  most  commonly  employed.  Its  dose  ranges  from  half  an  ounce 
to  two  or  three  ounces.  The  repetition  of  small  doses  at  intervals  of  six 
hours  wiil  keep  up  the  action  of  the  first  full  dose  when  desirable;  or 
sulj)hur  may  be  employed  for  this  purpose. 

Sulphur. — Sulpliur,  besides  its  value  in  cutaneous  affections,  is  very 
useful  as  an  aperient,  especially  for  keeping  up  the  action  of  the  bowels 
after  the  operation  of  salts.  Dose,  from  one  to  two  ounces.  Sulphur  is 
the  base  of  every  ointment  hv  the  cure  of  mange. 

Aloes. — This  drug  is  not  only  very  uncertain  in  its  operation  in  sheep, 
but  has  often  proved  fatal,  by  inducing  direct  inflammation.  It  is  in- 
valuable as  a  horse  medicine,  but  should  never  be  administered  to  the 
sheep. 

Linseed  Oil. — Linseed  oil  is  occasionally  used  as  a  purgative;  it  is 
given  in  doses  of  two  or  three  ounces. 

ALTERATIVES  AND  SPECIFIC  MEDICINES.— These  are  medicines  whi  di 
exert  a  peculiar  influence  on  certain  organs,  altering  their  diseased  action, 
or  stimulating  their  respective  secretions.  Some  act  more  especially  on 
the  liver,  others  on  the  glandular  system,  and  some  on  the  skin;  while 
one  exerts  a  peculiar  action  on  the  muscular  fibers  of  the  uterus.  A 
knowledge  of  the  effects  of  these  medicines  has  been  gained  by  experi- 
ence ;  but  wc  know  nothing  of  their  modus  operonuli. 


THE   SHEEP.  195 

Calomel  (Siihmiiriate  or  Protocliloride  of  Mercury).— Calomel  is  seldom 

used  ill  the  treatment  of  the  diseases  of  the  slieep.  In  cases  of  rot,  two 
or  three  grains  of  calomel,  mixed  with  a  grain  and  a  half  of  opium,  have 
been  found  beneficial  ;  this  dose  may  be  repeated  every  day,  or  every 
other  day,  for  several  times,  its  effects  being  watched. 

Sllipliate  of  Mercury  or  Ullliops  Mineral. — As  an  alterative  medicine, 
useful  in  cutaneous  disorders,  ^thiops  mineral  has  long  enjoyed  great 
reputation;  it  is  usually  combined  with  nitre  and  sulphur  in  the  follow- 
ing proportions  for  a  daily  dose  :  -^thiops  mineral,  one  scruple ;  nitre, 
two  scruples  ;  sulj)hur,  four  scruples. 

Iodine. — Iodine  is  useful  both  as  an  external  application,  and  also  as  a 
medicine  taken  internally,  in  cases  of  glandular  atiections  and  indurated 
swellings  of  the  ndder.  Its  mopt  convenient  form  is  the  iodide  of  po- 
tassium. An  excellent  ointment  is  composed  of  one  part  of  the  iodide 
and  seven  of  lard. 

Iodide  of  potassium  is  strongly  recommended  in  consumption,  when 
tubercles  have  formed  on  the  lungs.  The  dose  is  two  grains,  gradually 
increased  to  four  or  six,  given  morning  and  evening,  in  a  little  gruel. 

Ergot  of  Rye. — In  cases  of  lingering  parturition,  when  the  powers  of 
the  uterus  are  exhausted,  ei'got  of  rye  is  found  very  useful.  It  exerts  a 
peculiar  action  on  that  organ,  and  arouses  its  dormant  energy.  It 
should  be  employed  with  caution.  The  dose  is  a  scruple  or  half  a 
drachm,  repeated  at  intervals  of  half  an  hour,  if  necessary.  An  infusion 
of  ergot  of  rye  is  used  by  lambers  and  shepherds,  conjoined  with  a 
cordial  composed  of  equal  parts  of  brandy  and  spirits  of  nitre  {sp.  cether 
nitrici). 

SEDITIVE  AND  FEBRIFUGE  MEDICINES.— These  are  medicines  calcu- 
lated to  allay  fever  and  moderate  the  action  of  the  arterial  system. 
Among  these,  nitre  or  nitrate  of  potass,  tartar  emetic,  or  tartrate  of  an- 
timony, and  the  powder  of  digitalis,  i.e.^  of  the  dried  leaves  of  the  fox- 
glove, are  chiefly  in  requisition.  Opium,  or  tincture  of  opium  (laudanum), 
is  in  a  certain  sense  a  sedative ;  indeed,  in  some  diseases,  its  use  in 
allaying  irritation  cannot  be  overrated. 

Nitrate  of  Potass. — Nitre  is  used  as  a  febrifuge  with  good  effect,  but 
generally  in  combination  with  other  medicines.  Its  dose  is  from  half  a 
drachm  to  a  drachm. 

Tartrate  of  Antimony. — The  effect  of  this  medicine,  in  lowering  t''e 
action  of  the  heart  and  arterial  system,  is  very  decided.  Hence  in  many 
inflammatory  diseases  it  is  of  great  importance.  It  is  given  to  the  sheep 
in  doses  of  five  or  six  grains. 

Digitalis. — The  powdered  leaves  of  the  dried  foxglove  have  been  long 
esteemed  for  their  decided  effects  upon  the  action  of  the  heart.  They 
not  only  reduce  the  force  of  the  pulse,  but  often  render  it  intermittent. 
Digitalis,  in  combination  with  nitre  and  tartar-emetic  or  tartrate  of  anti- 
mony, forms  an  efficient  fever  medicine  in  cases  of  high  inflammation, 
as  pleurisy  and  similar  diseases. 

The  following  formula  for  sheep  has  been  used  with  success  :  digitalis 
powder,  five  grains;  tartrate  of  antimony,  five  grains;  nitrate  of  potass, 
half  a  drachm  ;  water,  three  or  four  ounces.  Mix.  To  be  given  twice 
a  day. 


196  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

ANTISPASIIODICS.— The  great  antispasmodic,  the  great  allajer  of  pain, 
and  of  irritation  of  the  alimentary  canal,  whether  in  cases  of  diarrhoea 
or  dysentery,  is  opium. 

Opium. — The  dose  of  this  all-potent  medicine  (when  judiciously  ad- 
ministered) is  two  or  three  grains.  Combined  with  oil,  it  has  been  given 
in  dysentery  w^th  the  best  effects.  Mr.  D.  Sayer  found  in  certain  cases 
of  dysentery  the  following  prescription  of  great  service: — linseed  oil, 
two  ounces  ;  powdered  opium,  two  grains.     Mix  in  an  infusion  of  linseed. 

On  the  following  day,  -le  gave  twice  in  the  twenty-four  hours  this 
mixture: — powdered  opium,  two  grains  ;  powdered  ginger,  and  powdered 
gentian,  of  each,  half  a  drachm.     Mix  in  linseed  tea. 

Afterward  this  draught  was  repeated  once  a  day,  with  the  addition 
of  half  an  ounce  of  linseed  oil.  This  was  continued  for  four  days,  when 
the  sheep  recovered.  In  cordial  and  astringent  medicines,  opium  is  an 
essential  ingredient,  and  it  may  also  be  combined,  w^ith  aperients. 

Laudanum,  or  Tincture  of  Opium. — Tincture  of  opium  possesses  the 

same  properties  as  the  powder  of  opium,  but  is  perhaps  quicker  in  its 
effects.     The  dose  for  sheep  is  froTn  twenty  to  sixty  drops. 

TONICS. — It  is  often  necessary  in  cases  of  debility,  when  acute  diseases 
have  been  subdued,  to  restore  or  invigorate  the  system  by  tonics.  Of 
these,  gentian  is  the  best,  and,  indeed,  will  supersede  every  other. 

Gentian. — Powdered  gentian  root  may  be  given  as  a  tonic  in  doses  of 
from  half  a  drachm  to  two  drachms,  in  combination  with  a  scruple  or 
half  a  drachm  of  powdered  ginger  in  gruel  or  water,  or  in  a  little  ale. 

Cordials. — Cordials,  or  stimulating  drenches,  are  not  so  often  given  to 
sheep  as  to  horned  cattle.  The  best  of  these  cordials  are  ginger,  cara- 
way-seeds, essence  of  peppermint,  and  carbonate  of  ammonia. 

Ginger. — The  dose  of  this  root  in  powder  is  from  a  scruple  to  a  drachm. 
It  is  generally  mixed  with  aperient  medicines,  and  aids  their  operation. 

Caraway-seeds. — Bruised  caraway-seeds  are  useful  as  a  cordial,  though 
inferior  to  ginger.     Dose,  half  a  drachm  or  a  drachm. 

Oil  or  Essence  of  Peppermint. — Peppermint  water — that  is,  water  in 
which  the  oil  of  peppermint  is  diffused — is  a  good  vehicle  for  tonic  and 
astringent  medicines.     It  is  never  given  alone. 

Carbonate  (Subcarbonate)  of  Ammonia.— In  cases  of  repletion  of  the 

stomach  by  a  mass  of  undigested  curd  (to  which  lambs  are  subject),  car- 
bonate of  ammonia  may  prove  very  useful,  both  from  its  stimulating 
and  its  antacid  properties.  A  drench,  composed  of  a  scruple  of  carbo- 
nate of  ammonia,  two  drachms  of  carbonate  (sesqui-carbonate)  of  soda, 
half  an  ounce  of  Epsom  salts,  and  a  scruple  of  ginger,  in  warm  water, 
may  be  given  every  six  hours.  A  solution  of  potash  in  lime-water  is 
recommended  in  these  cases.  We  here  give  the  directions  for  making 
and  administering  this  solution  : — take  a  lump  of  quick-lime,  of  the  size 
of  an  egg,  and  pour  on  it,  in  a  convenient  vessel,  as  much  water  as  will 
slake  it.  This  being  done,  then  pour  upon  it  one  pint  of  boiling  water; 
stir  the  whole  up,  and  cover  close.  While  this  is  allowed  to  stand  for 
some  time,  take  an  eight-ounce  bottle,  and  put  into  it  two  ounces  of 
subcarbonate  of  potass,  and  fill  up  the  bottle  with  the  lime-water  already 
made  :  pouring  it  off  rather  turbid  than  in  a  state  of  purity.  Cork  this 
up,  and  label  it,  "Solution  of  potass  in  lime-water."    Of  this  "solution," 


THE   SUEKP.  197 

a  tcaspoonful  or  two  should  be  added  to  some  warm  water,  together 
with  half  an  ounce  of  salts  and  a  scruple  of  ginger,  and  given  every  six 
hours,  till  good  etfects  result.  We  can  hardly  call  this  a  cordial  medi- 
cine. Its  effects,  setting  aside  the  Epsom  salts,  are  chemical,  and  the 
same  observation  applies  to  chloride  of  lime  given  internally  in  cases  of 
hoove.  Its  dose  in  the  shop  is  about  half  a  drachm.  As  a  disinfectant 
and  cleanser  of  foul  ulcers,  a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime,  applied  exter- 
nally, and  used  freely  as  a  wash,  is  invaluable. 

chloride  of  Lime. — For  its  properties,  see  above.  A  solution  of  chlo- 
ride of  lime,  for  washing  infected  sheep-cotes,  ulcers,  etc.,  may  be  made 
with  half  an  ounce  of  powder  dissolved  in  a  gallon  of  water.  Taken 
inter*^    ly  in  hoove,  it  acts  chemically  as  a  cordial  by  secondary  effects. 

CarbuliatC  (sesquiearbonate)  of  Soda.— Carbonate  of  soda  is  an  antacid, 
and  useful  as  a  component  in  cordial  draughts,  where  the  correction  of 
acidity  in  the  stomach  is  desirable.     Dose,  about  a  drachm. 

ASTRh\GE.\TS. — Astringents  are  medicines  which  act  upon  the  raucous 
membrane  of  the  alimentary  canal,  and  check  diarrhoea.  They  consist 
of  lime,  or  chalk,  opium,  catechu,  etc.,  and  are  always  combined  with 
cordials.  Of  lime,  or  rather  chalk,  little  need  be  said  ;  it  is  given  in 
doses  of  either  half  a  drachm  or  a  drachm.  Of  opium,  we  have  already 
spoken. 

Catechu. — This  is  an  extract  from  a  tree  of  the  acacia  tribe,  and  is 
very  valuable.     Dose,  a  scruple. 

The  following  is  a  useful  astringent  cordial  for  sheep  and  calves  : — 
prepared  chalk,  one  ounce  ;  powdered  catechu,  half  an  ounce  ;  powdered 
ginger,  two  drachms;  powdered  opium,  half  a  drachm;  mucilage  or  gum- 
water,  thick,  two  ounces  ;  peppermint-water,  six  ounces.  Mix.  Dose  : 
two  tablespoonfuls  twice  a  day. 

AlUQl. — Alum  is  not  often  used  in  the  treatment  of  sheep.  Its  dose 
is  ten  or  twenty  grains,  according  to  age.  The  "sheep's  cordial"  ren- 
ders it  unnecessary. 

EXTERNAL  APPLICATIONS.— Setons  are  seldom  used  in  the  treatment 
of  the  diseases  of  sheep,  and  the  wool  prevents  blisters  from  taking 
effect.  With  respect  to  chloride  of  lime,  as  we  have  noticed  it  under 
the  head  of  cordials,  we  need  not  repeat  our  observations  relative  to  its 
value  as  a  disinfectant  and  cleaner  of  foul,  sloughing  fetid  ulcers,  when 
properly  diluted  with  water  (half  an  ounce  to  the  gallon).  The  following 
external  applications  require  a  brief  notice  : — 

Poultices. — Those  of  linseed-raeal  are  best;  it  is  often  advantageous 
to  mix  with  them  a  little  chloride  of  lime,  especially  if  they  be  applied 
to  foul  ulcerations.  In  accelerating  suppuration,  a  little  turpentine  is  a 
useful  addition. 

Stimulants. — Turpentine,  camphorated  oil,  and  hartshorn,  form  a  good 
embrocation,  useful  in  strains  and  chronic  rheumatism.  To  two  ounces 
of  camphorated  oil  may  be  added  an  ounce  of  turpentine,  and  half  an 
ounce,  or  even  an  ounce  of  hartshorn. 

Olntmeuts  and  Lotions,  etc. — Mercurial  Ointment,  when  rubbed  down 
with  five  or  seven  parts  of  lard,  forms  a  ^  afe  and  almost  certain  cure  for 
the  scab.  White  Lead  is  often  sprinl-'  "er  the  part  struck  by  the  fly, 
in  order  to  destroy  the  maggots  bu.  the  skin.    It  is  superseded 

4o 


198  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

by  the  spirit  of  tar,  or  by  the  coarsest  kind  of  fish-oih  Corrosive  Sub 
limate. — A  dangerous  remedy,  often  employed  in  solution  as  a  wash 
for  scab.  Washes,  whether  of  a  solution  of  arsenic,  infusion  of  tobacco, 
or  of  hellebore,  are  equally  objectionable.  They  are  superseded  by  the 
diluted  mercurial  ointment.  Spirit  of  Tar. — A  useful  application  in 
foot-rot,  and  very  serviceable  when  freely  applied  to  parts  that  have 
been  struck  by  the  fly;  it  not  only  kills  the  maggots,  but  prevents  the 
attacks  of  the  insects,  which  are  repelled  by  its  odor.  Turpentine. — 
Useful  as  a  stimulant  in  ointments  and  embrocations.  It  may  be  mixed 
with  linseed-meal  poultices,  in  order  to  hasten  the  suppuration  of  slug- 
gish tumors,  and  is  a  serviceable  application  to  wounds  of  long  standing 
which  require  a  stimulus. 

Dressings. — Among  the  dressings  for  wounds,  tincture  of  aloes,  tincture 
of  myrrh,  and  tincture  of  benzoin,  or  Friar's  Balsam,  are  chiefly  in  re- 
quest.    Tar  mixed  with  lard  is  a  useful  dressing  in  foot-rot. 

Caustics. — At  the  head  of  caustics  stands  nitrate  of  silver,  or  lunar 
caustic.  It  is  to  the  free  use  of  this  that  the  veterinary  surgeon  will 
trust  in  probing  the  wounds  in  cattle  caused  by  the  bite  of  a  rabid  dog. 
It  is  very  useful  in  removing  warts  and  cutaneous  excrescences.  Other 
caustics,  however,  are  in  requisition.  In  cases  of  foot-rot,  hydrochloric 
acid,  or  a  solution  of  bichloride  of  mercury,  is  recommended  by  Mr.  Read, 
as  an  application  to  the  part  afl'ected.  Butyr  of  antimony,  or  chloride 
of  antimony,  is  a  very  useful  and  convenient  caustic.  It  has  been 
employed  in  foot-rot,  and  acts  well  where  a  superficial  effect  only  is  re- 
quired. It  does  not  produce  any  deep  corrosion;  hence  in  indolent 
ulcers,  in  foot-rot,  and  in  the  removal  of  fungous  excrescences,  it  is  of 
important  service.  Verdigris,  or  acetate  of  copper,  mixed  with  sugar  of 
lead,  finely  powdered,  sprinkled  on  sluggish  ulcers,  sometimes  acts  with 
good  eftect.  Blue  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  copper  finely  powdered,  is 
frequently  employed  as  an  cscharotic,  in  order  to  produce  superficial 
sloughing.  A  saturated  solution  is  recommended  by  some  veterinarians 
as  an  application  of  great  benefit  in  cases  of  foot- rot. 

FoillCUtiltions. — The  great  benefit  resulting  from  fomentations  arises 
from  the  warmth  of  the  water.  In  cases  of  inflammation  of  the  udder 
or  garget,  fomentations  are  indispensable.  Many  have  an  idea  that  the 
good  eftects  of  fomenting  depend  on  the  herbs  which,  as  is  generally  the 
case,  are  boiled  in  the  water;  but  this  is  an  error.  Poppy-heads  or  a 
little  laudanum  in  the  water  may  be  advantageous,  from  the  known  prop- 
erties of  opium  in  allaying  pain.  Slight  fomenting  is  useless — it  should 
be  long  kept  up  ;  but  this  is  seldom  done,  for  it  requires  no  small  degree 
of  quiet  patience. 

Pltlistcrs  or  Charges. — Plaisters,  or  charges,  are  in  frequent  demand. 
They  are  useful  in  cases  of  sprain  or  local  debility,  or  as  a  covering  and 
protection  to  sores  or  wounds,  or  the  basal  part  of  fractured  horns. 
They  form  a  good  defense  in  case  of  travel -worn  feet,  and  in  various 
ways  are  serviceable.  They  consist  of  a  mixture  of  pitch,  wax,  resin, 
lard,  etc.,  in  diff'erent  proportions,  thickly  spread  upon  coarse  cloth  or 
leather.  Tar,  spread  upon  cloth,  forms  an  excellent  plaister,  especially 
where  the  main  object  is  to  exclude  the  air.  Their  application  requires 
some  little  dexterity  of  manipulation.     Tar  is  a  useful  dressing  in  foot- 


TKK  SHEEP.  VJ'J 

rot,  when  tlie  hoalino;  process  has  commenced.  A  plaistcr  composed  of 
a  pound  of  pitch  and  two  draclims  of  bees'  wax,  melted  to<i;etlier,  and 
spread  wliile  waiin  on  soft  leather  or  linen  cloth,  is  applied  with  mnch 
advantaji'e  to  the  heads  of  sheep  which  are  sore  from  the  ravages  of  the 
niago;ots  of  the  Hy,  Some,  as  a  precantionary  measnre,  smear  the  head 
in  May  with  this  composition,  and  scatter  a  little  wool  over  it ;  others 
sew  the  plaistcr  round  the  head. 

Salving,  or  Smearing. — The  practice  of  salving  or  anointing  tlie  skin  of 
the  sheep,  after  shearing,  with  some  unctuous  preparation,  is  not  universal. 
It  is,  however,  the  ordinary  custom  in  Scotland,  and  is,  indeed,  essential 
to  the  health  and  comfort  of  sheep  exposed  to  bleak  winds  in  open  moun- 
tain districts,  to  heavy  mists,  and  drenching  and  long-continue<l  rains. 

The  primary  object  of  smearing  is  the  protection  of  the  skin  from  wet 
and  cold  ;  and  next,  to  promote  the  growth  of  the  wool  and  improve  its 
character.  Besides  these  objects,  there  are  others  not  unim[)ortant — 
the  prevention  of  the  attacks  of  insects,  the  destruction  of  such  as  might 
adhere  to  the  skin,  and  the  healthy  action  of  the  skin  or  the  removal  of 
cutaneous  affections,  for  which  tar  is  very  efficient.  Tar,  mixed  with 
butter,  in  order  to  counteract  its  tenacity,  is  the  ordinary  salving  mate- 
rial ;  and  vast  quantities  of  damaged  butter  are  yearly  sent  to  the  grazing 
districts  of  Scotland,  for  the  use  of  the  sheep  farmers.  One  sei-ious  dis- 
advantage, however,  attends  the  application  of  tar — it  indelibly  siaiiic 
the  wool ;  hence  it  cannot  be  used  for  white  goods,  and  what  is  more, 
it  will  not  take  the  finer  and  more  brilliant  dyes.  Wool  thus  tar-stained 
is  termed  laid  wool,  and  sells  at  a  lower  ratio  than  ivhlte  or  unsalt'cd 
wool.  Yet  in  exposed  situations  the  necessity  of  salving  is  felt,  and 
various  unguents  have  been  tried.  Instead  of  butter  whale-oil,  as  an 
adjunct  to  tar,  has  been  used,  and  is  recommended  by  the  lion.  W.  J. 
Napier  in  his  "Treatise  on  Practical  Store-farming;"  but  the  tinge  of  the 
tar  is  not  obviated  by  this  admixture.  Mr.  Hogg  says  :  "Of  late,  sevei'al 
compositions  have  been  purposely  and  extensively  tried,  in  which  the 
spirit  of  tar  has  been  substituted  for  tar  itself.  This  has,  in  some  cases, 
been  complained  of  as  too  irritating;  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  a  too 
free  use  of  spirit  of  tar  is  injurious  and  even  fatal.  Some  of  the  salves, 
while  they  prove  to  be  perfectly  well  adapted  to  flocks  that  are  clean, 
have  been  found  ineffectual  either  in  curing  or  warding  off  the  scab — a 
disease  which  the  common  salve  made  of  tar  and  grease  seems  effectually 
to  resist.  When  a  flock  is  perfectly  clean,  olive-oil  has  been  found  to  be 
the  best  substance  for  softening  the  fleece,  and  warding  off  rain  and 
snow.  For  clean  sheep,  'Taylor's  salve'  is  also  suitable,  though  some 
English  staplers  have  condemned  it.  If  a  tar-salve  were  made  so  as  to 
be  free  from  the  impurities  of  the  tar,  it  might  probably  answer  every 
purpose.  The  ordinary  proportion  of  one  cwt.  of  grease  to  a  barrel  of 
tar,  might  be  increased  to  one  and  a  half  cwt. ;  and  when  melted  together, 
the  impurities  of  the  tar  might  be  suffered  to  subside  and  be  separated. 
In  this  way  the  tar  might  not  leave  a  stain  upon  the  wool  when  scoured. 
Olive  oil  seems  to  impregnate  the  wool,  or  to  adhere  to  it  more  firmly 
than  any  other  kind  of  greasy  matter;  and  it  has  been  successfully 
euijiloyed  by  Mr.  Sellar,  of  Morvich,  a  first-rate  store-farmer  in  Suther- 
land." 


200  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

Mr.  Hogg  recommends  the  following  unguent  to  be  rubbed  over 
every  part  of  the  animal,  after  shearing,  with  a  curry  brush  : — train  or 
seal  oil,  four  gallons;  tar,  half  a  gallon  ;  oil  of  turpentine,  one  pint.  Mix. 
Mr.  John  Graham,  of  Newbigging,  perceiving  the  disadvantage  of  tar  as 
a  wool-stainer,  and  yet  desirous  of  smearing  his  sheep,  used  the  following 
preparation,  in  which  the  tar  was  omitted,  yellow  resin  being  used  in 
its  stead  : — butter,  eighteen  pounds;  hogs'  lard,  eighteen  pounds;  resin, 
twelve  pounds;  Gallipoli  oil,  one  gallon.  Mix.  This  quantity  he  found 
sufficient  for  fifty  or  fifty-five  sheep,  and  the  cost  of  smearing  each  sheep 
was  about  four  and  a  half  pence.  He  found  this  wool,  when  washed, 
equally  valuable  with  the  white  wool  :  and  it  sold  for  a  considerably 
higher  price  than  the  laid  or  tarred  wool.  The  importance  of  smearing 
or  salving  is  undeniable.  The  use  of  a  small  quantity  of  some  oleaginous 
or  greasy  application  immediately  after  shearing  is  now  generally  ac- 
knowledged. The  protection  which  it  aftbrds  to  the  almost  denuded 
skin — its  substitution  for  the  natural  yolk,  which  is  not  in  its  full  quan- 
tity immediately  secreted — and  the  softness  vvhich  it  will  impart  to  the 
"wool — are  circumstances  w^ell  deservino-  attention. 


THE 


DOMESTIC    HOG 


TO 


BliEED,  FEED,  CUT  UP,  AND  CUIiE. 


202 


THE    HOG.  203 

TME    DOi^IESTIC    IIOCJ : 

TO  BEEED,  FEED,   CUT  UP,  AND  CUEE. 

VARIETIES  OF  THE  HOG.— There  exist  only  three  actual  varieties  of 
the  domestic  hog — the  Berkshire,  Chinese,  and  Highland,  or  Irish;  all 
other  breeds,  described  as  separate  varieties,  are  only  otishoots  from  one 
or  the  other  of  these  three  main  stocks. 

The  True  Berkshire  Pig  is  black,  or  black  and  white,  short-legged,  full 
and  round  in  the  loins,  rather  fine  in  the  hair,  the  ears  small  and  erect, 
and  the  snout  not  lengthy.  This  description  of  animal  forms  a  striking 
contrast  with  the  long-sided,  convex-backed,  lob-eared,  long-legged,  and 
shambling  brute  which  was  common  in  many  parts  of  Great  Britain, 
and  almost  universal  in  Ireland,  thirty  or  forty  years  ago,  and  which 
still,  without  any  improvement  in  form,  is  the  general  description  of  the 
pig  throughout  France  and  most  of  Germany. 

In  giving  preference,  however,  to  the  Berkshire  breed,  it  is  not  to  be 
understood  that  we  consider  them  handsome  in  a  positive  sense,  or  per- 
fect models  of  good  breeding  and  propriety  in  their  habits  and  manners. 
No  dumj)y  animal,  with  its  belly  near  the  ground,  with  four  short 
crutches  for  legs,  hair  by  no  means  silky,  a  little  curled  tail,  and  small, 
sunk  eyes,  peering  into  every  hole  and  corner  and  never  looking  upward 
to  the  glorious  fii-mament,  can  be  called  an  absolute  beauty ;  but,  com- 
pared with  other  races  of  swine,  the  Berkshire  are  handsome ;  and,  as 
to  their  habits  and  manners,  they  have  no  little  merit;  for,  considering 
the  natural  dispositions  of  the  hog  family,  and  the  contemptuous  man- 
ner in  which  they  are  spoken  of  and  treated  everywhere  (except  in  cer- 
tain parts  of  Ireland,  and  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  where  pigs  are 
privileged  orders,  and  experience  such  respect  as  to  be  permitted,  and 
even  invited,  to  occupy  the  same  room  with  their  masters,  by  day  and 
night,  in  consideration  of  their  paying  the  house-rent,  and  supplying  the 
means  of  purchasing  salt,  candles,  and  soap),  the  Beikshire  race  have 
unquestionable  merit,  and  appear  to  respect  the  decencies  of  life.  Their 
females  have  never  been  known  to  commit  infanticide,  as  some  other 
domesticated  tribes  of  swine  undoubtedly  do,  from  what  we  consider  a 
depraved  taste;  nor  have  either  sex  of  this  tribe  been  ever  justly  ac- 
cused, or  even  suspected,  of  that  cannibal  propensity  which  has  led  in- 
dividuals of  certain  other  tribes  of  the  great  hog  family  to  seize  upon 
the  tender  babe  in  the  cradle  and  devour  it,  "marrow,  bones,  and  all  I" 
They  (the  Berkshircs)  are  so  docile  and  gentle  that  a  little  boy  or  girl 
may  drive  them  to  and  from  the  pasture-field  or  the  common  without 
liaving  their  authority  disputed  ;  and,  when  ranging  about  in  the  happy 
consciousness  of  liberty,  though  they  may  sometimes  poke  their  noses 
where  their  interference  is  not  desired,  they  do  not  perpetrate  half  the 
mischief  to  the  turf  which  other  classes  of  swine  are  prone  to  commit. 
They  seem  disposed  to  content  themselves  with  the  grass  on  the  surface 
of  tb^  soil,  without  uprooting  it  in  search  of  delicacies  that  may  lie 


204 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


THE   HOG.  205 

beneath,  as  do  some  of  the  long-snouted  tribes  which  plow  the  earth  up 
in  furrows.  They  seem  to  make  it  a  point  of  honor,  too,  to  become  fat 
as  fast  as  possible,  in  return  for  the  food  they  have  received,  in  order  that 
thus  they  may  be  in  condition  to  pay  "  the  pound  of  flesh"  which  is 
*'in  the  bond"  against  them.  They  never  fret  at  trifles,  and  thereby 
impede  their  digestion,  and  lose  health  and  flesh.  They  never  sulk  and 
refuse  their  meals;  nor  do  they  complain  of  the  quality  or  scantiness 
of  their  food,  like  some  of  those  ungrateful  children  of  certain  parochial 
asylums,  who  have  fancied  that  they  could  have  eaten  a  little  more  por- 
ridge if  it  had  been  ladled  into  the  platter  for  them.  I  do  not  indeed 
say  that  the  Berkshire  swine  are  singularly  neat  in  their  personal  habits, 
quite  ceremonious  at  their  meals,  and  free  from  the  vice  of  gluttony, 
nor  that  they  will  not  scramble  and  fight  for  the  best  bits,  and  exhibit 
their  unseemly  manifestations  of  self-indulgence ;  nor  that  they  would 
be  shocked  at  snoring  aloud,  even  in  the  presence  of  royalty  or  nobility, 
if  the  inclination  to  fall  asleep  should  seize  them ;  but,  then,  it  is  to  be 
remembered  that  every  individual  of  the  hog  species  would  do  the  same 
things.  In  short,  their  peculiarities  decidedly  tend  to  the  benefit  of 
mankind ;  and,  after  all,  their  failings,  like  many  of  our  own,  proceed 
entirely  from  the  stomach. 

'J'he  capacious  paunch  of  the  pig,  and  its  great  powers  of  digestion, 
are  what  render  it  so  beneficial  to  us ;  yet,  though  in  a  domesticated 
state,  a  pig  will  eat  almost  any  sort  of  animal  or  vegetable  food — raw 
or  cooked,  fresh  or  putrid — he  is,  when  at  large,  as  naturalists  inform 
lis,  the  most  delicate  and  discriminating  of  all  quadrupeds.  If  free  to 
select  his  vegetable  food,  he  will  reject  a  greater  number  of  plants  than 
the  cow,  the  sheep,  the  h.orse,  the  ass,  or  the  goat  will  refuse;  so  nice 
does  he  become  when  luxuries  surround  him,  that  in  the  orchards  of 
peach-trees  of  North  America,  where  the  hog  has  delicious  food,  it  is 
observed  by  Goldsmith,  "  that  it  will  reject  the  food  that  has  lain  but  a 
few  hours  on  the  ground,  and  continue  on  the  watch  whole  hours  to- 
gether for  a  fresh  windfall." 

The  Hampshire. — This  breed  is  often  confounded  with  the  Berkshire,  but 
its  body  is  longer  and  its  sides  flatter;  the  head  is  long  and  the  snout 
sharp.  The  color  is  usually  dark-spotted,  but  sometimes  altogether 
black,  and  sometimes  white.  This  variety  has  been  produced  by  crosses 
with  the  Berkshire,  Suflfolk,  Chinese  and  Leicester  breeds. 

The  Yorkshire. — This  is  the  product  of  a  cross  with  the  true  Berk- 
shire.    They  are  quick  feeders  and  fatten  rapidly. 

Herefordshire. — Generally  supposed  to  be  the  result  of  a  cross  with  the 
Shropshire;  it  is  shorter  in  the  body,  carries  less  bone  than  that  breed, 
has  also  a  lighter  head,  a  smaller  car,  a  less  rugged  coat,  and  is  alto- 
gether a  far  more  valuable  animal.  This  hog  is  little  inferior  to  the 
Berkshire  breed. 

Gloucestershire. — The  Gloucestershire  hogs  are  somewhat  less  in  size 
than  the  preceding,  and  are  also  shorter  in  the  body,  rounder  both  in 
frame  and  limb,  and  altogether  more  compactly  built.  They  make 
good  store  hogs,  and  their  pork  is  of  prime  quality. 

Norlhamptonshire,  of  a  light  color,  of  a  handsome  shape,  light  and 
small  ear,  little  bone,  deep-sided  and  compactly  formed.     This  is  a  profit- 


206 


DOMESTIC   Ai^IMALS. 


able   porker  and  a  good  store,  for  he   feeds  well,  fattens  rapidly,  and 
arrives  early  at  maturity. 

Norfolk. — A  small  breed,  with  pricked  erect  ears  ;  color  various,  but 
generally  white.  The  white-colored  are  said  to  be  the  best;  when 
striated  or  blue,  the  breed  is  inferior,  at  least  generally  so.  This  is  a 
short-bodied  and  compactly  formed  pig,  and  is  an  excellent  porker. 
There  is  another  Norfolk  variety,  of  larger  size,  spotted,  but  inferior  in 
point  of  delicacy. 


TUB   LEICESTER  SOW. 


Leicestershire. — An  ancient  breeding  district,  and  once  greatly  cele- 
brated for  its  swine.  The  old  stock  were  large-sized,  deep  in  the  car- 
cass, and  flat-sided  ;  the  head  and  ear  light  and  hand.some,  color  light- 
spotted. 

Lincolnshire. — The  old  Lincolnshire  breed  was  light-colored,  or  even 
white,  with,  in  most  specimens,  a  curly  and  woolly  coat,  of  medium 
size;  good  feeders,  came  early  to  maturity,  and  fattened  easily. 

The  Essex  w\as  in  former  days  a  very  capital  hog,  but  degenerated, 
and,  of  course,  lost  the  esteem  of  breeders.  A  recollection  of  the  former 
good  qualities  which  characterized  the  breed  induced  some  persons  of 
practical  judgment  to  revive  it,  which  was  accordingly  done  ;  and  now 
tliis  hog,  under  the  name  of 

The  Improved  Essex,  ranks,  most  justly,  very  high  amongst  the  British 
breeds  of  swine.  The  improvement  of  this  hog  is  due  to  a  cross  with 
the  Neapolitan  ;  and  this  cross  has  been  so  frequently  resorted  to,  that 
the  pure  Essex  breed  and  the  Neapolitan  are  so  much  alike  that  it  is 
not  every  cursory  observer  who  is  capable  of  discriniinating  between 
them.  It  is  probable,  also,  that  the  Chinese  was  employed  in  the  re- 
generation. The  Essex  hog  is  up-eared  ;  has  a  long,  sharp  head  ;  also  a 
long  and  level  carcass,  with  small  bone;  color  most  frequently  black, 
or  black  and  white.  This  is  a  quicker  feeder,  but  he  requires  a  greater 
proportion  of  food  than  the  weight  he  attains  to  justifies;  besides  which, 
he  is  troublesome  in  a  fokl,  being  restless  and  discontented.  The-  pure 
breed  should  be  almost  bare  of  hair,  and  black  in  color. 

There  is  another  improved  Essex  breed    called  the  Essex  half-hlacJcs, 


THE    IIOG.  207 

resembling  tliat  Nvliich  we  liave  described,  in  color,  said  to  be  descended 
from  the  Berkshire.  This  breed  was  originally  introduced  by  Lord 
Western,  and  obtained  much  celebrity.  They  are  black  and  white, 
ghort-haired,  tine-skinned,  with  smaller  heads  and  ears  than  the  Berk- 
sliire,  feathered  with  inside  hair,  a  distinctive  mark  of  both  ;  have  short, 
snubby  noses,  very  fine  bone,  broad  and  deep  in  the  belly,  full  in  the 
hind  quarters,  and  light  in  the  bone  and  offal.  They  feed  remarkably 
quick,  grow  fast,  and  are  of  an  excellent  quality  of  meat.  The  sows 
are  good  breeders,  and  bring  litters  of  from  eight  to  twelve,  but  they 
have  the  character  of  being  bad  nurses. 

The  Sussex. — Black  and  white  in  color,  but  not  spotted,  that  is  to  say, 
these  colors  are  distributed  in  very  large  patches;  one-half — say,  for  in- 
stance, the  fore-part  of  the  body — white,  and  the  hinder  end  black;  some- 
times both  ends  black,  and  the  middle  white,  or  the  reverse.  These  are 
no  way  remarkable;  they  seldom  feed  over  one  hundred  and  sixty  pounds. 

The  Chinese  Hog. — This  breed  is  of  small  size,  yet  its  early  maturity, 
the  rapidity  with  which  it  takes  on  flesh,  and  the  smallness  of  its  bones, 
liave  induced  many  breeders  to  use  it  in  crosses  with  larger  and  coarser 
breeds— one  of  the  best  results  of  which  has  been  the  production  of  a 
very  popular  variety,  denominated  The  Suffolk. 

the  Suffolk  Hog. — The  Suffolk  breed  of  swine  are  a  small,  delicate  pig, 
thin-skinned,  soft-haired,  small,  pricked  ear;  color  white.  They  are  in 
character  like  the  Chinese,  fed  almost  as  easily,  are  more  hardy,  and 
possess  more  lean  meat. 

HOW  TO  CHOOSE  A  PIG.— How  to  choose  a  pig?— that  is  the  ques- 
tion. To  rely  on  the  terms  Berkshire,  Essex,  Suffolk,  Improved  Yorkshire, 
Improved  Bedfordshire,  etc.,  as  guarantees  of  first-rate  qualities,  would 
be  folly.  In  all  countries,  even  those  the  most  renowned  for  their  breeds, 
there  are  both  good  and  bad  ;  and  even  of  the  best  breeds  some  are  in- 
ferior to  the  others,  and  ought  to  be  rejected  as  unfit  for  becoming  the 
parents  of  a  lineage. 

The  following,  the  result  of  large  and  recent  experience,  are  well 
worthy  the  attention  of  breeders: 

Fertility. — The  strain  from  which  the  farmer  or  breeder  selects  ought 
to  be  noted  for  fertility.  In  a  breeding  sow  this  quality  is  essential,  and 
it  is  one  which  is  inherited.  The  same  observation  applies  to  other 
domestic  animals.  But,  besides  this,  she  should  be  a  careful  mother, 
and  with  a  sufficient  number  of  dugs  for  a  family  of  twelve  at  a  single 
litter.  A  young  untried  sow  will  generally  display  in  her  instincts  those 
which  have  predominated  in  the  race  from  which  she  has  descended  ; 
and  the  number  of  teats  can  be  counted.  Both  boar  and  sow  should 
be  sound,  healthy,  and  in  fair  but  not  over-fat  condition  ;  and  the  former 
should  be  from  a  stock  in  which  fertility  is  a  characteristic. 

Form. — It  may  be  that  the  farmer  has  a  breed  which  he  wishes  to 
perpetuate;  it  is  highly  improved,  and  he  sees  no  reason  for  immediate 
crossing.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  he  may  have  an  excellent  breed  with 
certain  defects — as  too  long  in  the  limb,  or  too  heavy  in  the  bone.  Here, 
we  should  say,  the  sire  to  be  chosen,  whether  of  a  pure  or  cross  breed, 
should  exhibit  the  opposite  qualities,  even  to  an  extreme,  and  be,  withal, 
ne  of  a  strain  noted  for  early  and  rapid  fattening. 


208 


DOMESTIC   AJifTMALS 


"1111111.1,1  "'!i'i'ii,i„im.,,,,|i^ 


THE  IIOO.  209 

But  what  is  meant  by  /orm,  as  applied  to  the  pig?  A  development 
of  those  points  connected  with  the  profit  of  the  owner.  In  these  points 
liigh  or  low  blood  is  demonstrated.  The  head  should  be  small,  high  at 
the  forehead,  short  and  sharp  in  the  snout,  with  eyes  animated  and  lively, 
and  thin,  sharp,  upright  ears  ;  the  jowl,  or  cheek,  should  be  deep  and  full ; 
the  neck  should  be  thick  and  deep,  arch  gracefully  from  the  back  of  the 
head,  and  merge  gradually  into  a  broad  breast;  the  shoulders  should  be 
set  well  apart  at  the  clavicular  joint;  the  body  should  be  deep,  round, 
well-barreled,  with  an  ample  chest,  broad  loins,  and  a  straight,  flat, 
broad  back;  the  tail  should  be  slender;  the  hams  should  be  round,  full, 
and  well  developed  ;  the  limbs  fine-boned,  with  clean,  small  joints  ;  and 
with  small,  compact  hoofs,  set  closely  together,  with  a  straight  bearing 
upon  the  ground.  If  in  perfect  liealth,  the  animal  will  be  lively,  ani- 
mated, hold  up  his  head,  and  move  freely  and  nimbly.  We  do  not  speak 
of  fat  hogs,  for  they  are  necessarily  sluggish  and  unwieldy ;  nor  yet  of 
pregnant  sows ;  but  of  young  store-hogs,  or  of  young  stock  selected  for 
breeding. 

The  skin  should  be  soft  and  thin,  of  a  bright  pink  color;  the  neck 
short,  the  chest  wide  (which  denotes  strength  of  constitution) ;  broad, 
straight  back,  short  head,  and  fine  snout,  slightly  curved  upward ;  and 
in  the  large  breed  there  is  often  a  pretty  prominent  swelling  on  the 
snout,  between  the  nasal  and  frontal  bones.  The  legs  and  hoofs  should 
be  small.  The  sows  should  have  at  least  twelve  teats.  In  purchasing  a 
prize  animal,  whether  boar  or  sow,  see  that  it  can  walk  well.  A  lump 
of  fat  bacon  may  do  to  kill  at  Christmas,  but  will  be  of  very  little  use 
until  reduced  to  breed  from ;  and  in  the  journey  and  reduction  you  may 
lose  your  pig  and  your  money. 

For  breeding  sucking-pigs  there  is  nothing  better  than  the  large  Eng- 
lish breed  (they  are  prolific,  and  good  mothers),  crossed  with  a  Avhite 
Chinese  boar.  No  other  breed  will  raise  sucking-pigs  to  the  same  size 
as  this  cross;  they  also  form  excellent  porkers,  speedily  attaining  from 
forty-eight  to  fifty-six  pounds ;  but  if  required  to  be  nmch  larger,  it 
wnll  be  found  to  pay  better  to  treat  them  as  stores,  letting  them  graze, 
or  run  as  "shocks"  in  the  field  after  harvest,  or  rooting  on  the  manure- 
heap,  until  they  are  ten  or  twelve  months  old,  and  then  put  them  up  to 
fatten.  Still  they  are  not  so  profitable  as  the  improved  Essex,  and  do 
not  make  such  fine  bacon  as  the  improved  Berkshire. 

The  improved  Essex,  if  well  fed  from  the  first,  arrives  very  early  at 
maturity,  as  to  its  frame  or  bony  structure,  and  is  the  best  for  making 
hobbledehoys  of  porkers  from  eighteen  to  twenty  pounds'  weight. 

The  improved  Berkshire  may  be  considered  the  more  useful  to  a 
farmer  who  desires  a  sort  useful  in  every  stage  of  its  growth.  The  Berk- 
shire sow  will  suckle  ten  or  a  dozen  sucking-pigs — even  more  if  assisted 
by  artificial  means — and  is  very  superior  for  large  ham  and  bacon.  The 
small  breed  is  very  well  for  porkers,  but  not  for  the  flitch.  A  good 
little  animal  is  good ;  but  we  want  a  good  and  big  animal.  The  im- 
proved Berkshire  realizes  this  desideratum,  as  it  realizes  the  highest 
price  from  the  bacon-curers,  cuts  up  wide  over  the  back,  well  interlarded 
with  fat  and  lean.  It  is  also  more  free  from  lameness  than  any  other 
breed. 


210 


DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 


In  a  word,  in  choosing  a  pig,  you  must  consider  your  climate,  yonr 
means  of  feeding,  and  your  market;  whether  you  want  sucking-pigs  or 
hobbledehoy  pork. 


y 

V 

y    \ 

J, 

a 

a.  I 

/           s     1 

/ 

/ 

p 

03 

5 

5 
C 

5 

J      \  1    2 

'v\  -i-j  v\v\ 

a 

d. 

if  ^ 

N 

A 

D6 

s  — 

o 

d 

J 
C 

il 

5 

d 

\ 

H           DG 

V 

/ 

y 

i 

y     \ 

B 
DG 

i 

na 

A,  A,  front;  C,  C,  rear  for  pens:  5,  5.  pens  with  alley  between  ;  v,  f,  v,  v.  vats  on  level  with 
pens;  1,  safety  valve;  2,  steam  pipe ;  3,  supply  barrel  to  boiler;  6,  boiler ;/,  furnace ;  7^,  plat- 
form partly  over  boiler  ;  4.  chinmey ;  t,  drain";  w,  water-cistern;  g,  door  to  cellar;  «,  s,  stairs; 
d,  d,  doors  ;  6,  C5,  scuttles  to  cellar;  y,  y,  yards  to  pens. 

HOUSES  AND  PIGGERIES.— An  inclosure  proportionate  to  the  number 
of  swine  which  you  intend  to  keep,  and,  if  possible,  so  managed  as  to 
admit  of  extending  the  accommodation,  will  be  found  the  best  for  gen- 
eral purposes.  It  should  be  provided  with  a  range  of  sheds,  so  situated 
as  to  be  thoroughly  sheltered  from  wind  and  weather,  paved  at  the 
bottom,  and  sloping  outward.  Kehitive  to  the  paramount  necessity  of 
cleanliness  and  dryness,  let  both  inclosure  and  sheds  possess  the  means 
of  beinnr  kept  so.  In  order  to  keep  the  sheds,  which  are  designed  as 
sleeping  places,  in  a  dry  and  clean  state,  an  inclination  outward  is 
necessary  ;  a  shallow  drain  should  run  along  the  whole  of  their  extent, 
in  order  to  receive  whatever  wet  flows  down  the  inclined  plane  of  the 
sleeping  huts;  and  provision  should  also  be  made  for  this  drain  to  carry 
off  all  offensive  matters  beyond  the  precincts  of  the  piggery. 

The  ground  on  which  the  piggery  is  established  should  likewise  be 
divided  into  two  parts,  bv  a  drain,  which  should  run  through  it;  and 
toward  this  drain  each  section  should  slope.  This  the  main  drain  should 
be  carried  beyond  the  fold,  and  fall  into  a  large  tank  or  pit  formed  for 
that  purpose.     The  object  in  view  is  to  keep  the  pig-fold  and  sties  in 


THE    HOG.  211 

a  clean  and  dry  state,  and  to  preserve  tlie  valuable  liquid  manure,  which 
comes  from  the  animals  you  keep.  Some  will  probably  inquire  whether 
it  would  not  be  better  to  suffer  the  moisture  to  soak  into  earth  or  straw, 
or  other  substances  on  the  Jloor  of  the  inclosure,  and  then  to  clear  all 
away  periodically,  than  to  drain  off  the  liquid  into  a  tank.  By  drawing 
off  the  liquid  you  add  to  the  cleanliness  of  your  swine,  and,  in  pro- 
portion, to  their  health  and  capacity  for  thriving;  and  the  collection  of 
the  liquid  manure  into  tanks  is  less  troublesome  than  the  removal  of 
substances  saturated  with  it,  from  the  Hoor  of  the  fold,  would  be. 

The  sties  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  admit  of  being  closed  up 
altogether,  when  desirable  ;  for  swine,  even  the  hardiest  breeds,  are 
susceptible  of  cold,  and  if  exposed  to  it  in  severe  weather,  it  will  ma- 
terially retard  their  fattening.  The  sty  should  be  kept  constantly  sup- 
plied with  clean  straw.  The  refuse  carted  into  the  tank  will,  in  the  form 
of  manure,  more  than  repay  the  value  of  the  straw.  It  has  been  asserted 
that  swine  do  not  thrive  if  kept  upon  the  same  ground  in  considerable 
mimbers;  this  assertion  rests  on  a  want  of  ventilation  and  cleanliness. 

As  to  troughs,  let  them  be  of  stone  or  cast  metal ; — if  of  wood,  the 
pigs  will  soon  gnaw  them  to  pieces; — and  let  them  be  ke2:)t  clean.  Be- 
fore each  feeding,  a  pail  of  water  should  be  dashed  into  the  trough; 
this  may  be  deemed  troublesome,  but  it  will  confer  golden  returns  on 
those  who  attend  to  it. 

A  supply  of  fresh  water  is  essential  to  the  well-being  of  swn'ne,  and 
should  be  freely  furnished.  Some  recommend  this  to  be  effected  by 
having  a  stream  brought  through  the  piggery  ;  and  undoubtedly,  when 
this  can  be  managed,  it  answers  better  than  any  thing  else.  Swine  are 
dirty  feeders,  and  dirty  drinkers,  usually  plunging  their  fore-feet  into 
the  trough  or  pail,  and  thus  polluting  with  mud  and  dirt  whatever  may 
be  given  to  them.  One  of  the  advantnges,  therefore,  derivable  from 
the  stream  of  running  water  being  brought  through  the  fold  is,  its  being, 
by  its  running,  kept  constantly  clean  and  wholesome.  If,  therefore,  you 
are  unable  to  procure  this  advantage,  it  will  be  desirable  to  present 
water  in  vessels  of  a  size  to  receive  but  one  head  at  a  time,  and  of  such 
height  as  to  render  it  impossible  or  difficult  for  the  drinker  to  get  his 
feet  into  it.     The  water  should  be  renewed  twice  daily. 

We  have  hitherto  been  describing  a  piggery  capable  of  containing  a 
large  number;  a  greater  proportional  profit  will  be  realized  by  keeping 
a  number  of  swine  than  a  few.  It  may  happen,  however,  that  want  of 
capital,  or  of  inclination  to  embark  in  swine-feeding  as  an  actual  specu- 
lation, may  induce  many  to  prefer  keeping  a  small  number  of  pigs,  or 
even  perhaps  one  or  two,  in  which  case  such  accommodations  as  have 
been  described  would  be  more  than  superfluous.  In  this  case,  a  single 
hut,  well  sheltered  from  wind  and  rain,  and  built  with  a  due  regard  to 
comfort,  to  warmth,  with  a  little  court  surrounding  its  door,  in  which 
the  tenant  may  feed,  obey  the  calls  of  nature,  and  disport  himself,  or 
bask  in  the  sunshine,  will  be  found  to  answer;  a  small  stone  trough,  or 
a  wooden  one,  bound  with  iron,  to  preserve  it  from  beirg  gnawed  to 
pieces,  will  complete  the  necessary  furniture.  The  trough  will  serve 
alternately  for  food  and  drink.  Even,  however,  when  this  limited  ac- 
commodation is  resorted  to,  a  strict  attention  to  cleanliness  is  no  less 


212  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

necessary  than  when  operations  are  carried  on  on  the  most  extensive 
scale.  i3oth  the  floor  of  the  hut  and  that  of  the  little  court  should  be 
paved,  and  should  incline  outward  ;  along  the  lowest  side  should  be  a 
drain,  \\ith  a  sufficient  declination,  and  so  contrived  as  to  communicate 
with  your  duno-tank.  The  farther  the  manure-heap,  or  tank,  from  the 
dwelling,  the  better  :  vegetable  matter,  in  progress  of  decomposition, 
gives  rise  to  pestilential  vapors,  or  miasmata. 

When  the  weather  is  fine,  a  few  hours'  liberty  will  serve  the  health 
and  the  condition  of  your  hog,  and  a  little  grazing  would  be  all  the 
better.  Should  you  be  desirous  of  breeding,  and  keep  a  sow  for  that 
purpose,  you  must,  if  you  have  a  second  hog,  provide  a  second  sty,  for 
the  sow  will  require  a  separate  apartment  when  heavy  in  pig,  and  when 
giving  suck.  This  may  be  easily  effected  by  building  it  against  that 
which  you  have  already  erected,  thus  saving  the  trouble  of  raising 
more  walls  than  are  absolutely  necessary ;  and  it  need  not  have  a  court 
attached  to  it,  should  it  be  inconvenient  for  you  to  have  one,  as  the  best 
accommodation  can  be  given  up  to  the  breeding  sow,  and  your  pigs  will 
do  well  enough  with  a  single  apartment,  if  not  too  confined,  and  it  have 
sufficient  ventilation  ;  and  if  you  permit  them  the  advantage  of  taking 
air  for  a  few  hours  daily.  The  extensive  feeder  should  have  a  boiler  of 
large  size,  properly  fitted  up,  and  an  apparatus  for  steaming,  as  some 
vegetables  are  cooked  in  this  mode  more  advantageously  than  by  boiling. 
The  poor  man  can  use  a  pot  as  a  substitute  for  a  boiler,  remembering  in 
every  case  to  clean  it  before  using.  Food  should  be  presented  to  swine 
in  a  warm  state — neither  too  hot  nor  too  cold. 

A  sty  should  be  about  seven  or  eight  feet  square,  and  the  court  about 
ten  feet.  The  second  sty  need  not  be  more  than  six  feet  square,  and 
does  not  absolutely  require  a  court. 

Breeding,  Rearing,  and  Feeding. — In  the  selection  of  a  boar  and  sow  for 
breeding,  much  more  attention  and  consideration  are  necessary  than 
people  generally  imagine.  It  is  as  easy,  wMth  a  very  little  judgment  and 
management,  to  procure  a  good  as  an  inferior  breed  ;  and  the  former  is 
infinitely  more  remunerative,  in  proportion  to  outlay,  than  the  latter  can 
possibly  ever  be.  In  selecting  the  parents  of  your  future  stock,  you  must 
bear  in  mind  the  precise  objects  you  may  have  in  view,  whether  the 
rearing  for  pork,  or  bacon  ;  and  whether  you  desire  to  meet  the  earliest 
market,  and  thus  realize  a  certain  profit,  with  the  least  possible  outlay 
of  money,  or  loss  of  time  ;  or  whether  you  mean  to  be  contented  to  await 
a  heavier  although  somewhat  protracted  return.  If  bacon,  and  the  late 
market  be  your  object,  you  will  do  well  to  select  the  large  and  heavy 
varieties,  taking  care  that  the  breed  has  the  character  of  being  possessed 
of  those  qualities  most  likely  to  insure  a  heavy  return,  viz. :  growth  and 
facility  of  taking  fat,  relatively  possessed  by  each.  To  that  description 
we  refer  the  reader.  If  his  object  be  to  produce  pork,  he  will  find  his 
account  in  the  smaller  varieties;  such  as  arrive  with  greatest  rapidity  at 
maturity,  and  which  arc  likely  to  produce  the  most  delicate  flesh.  In 
producing  joor^,  it  is  not  desirable  that  it  should  be  too  fat ^  without  a 
corresponding  proportion  of  lean  ;  and  on  this  account,  rather  take  a 
cross-bred  sow  than  a  pure  Chinese  stock,  from  which  the  over-fattening 
results  might  most  naturally  be  apprehended.     The  Berkshire,  crossed 


1 


THE  HOG.  213 

with  Chinese,  is  about  the  best  porker  I  can  mention.  In  every  case, 
whether  your  object  be  pork  or  bacon,  {he.  points  to  be  looked  for  are — 
in  the  sow,  a  small,  lively  hea<l,  a  broad  and  deep  chest,  round  ribs, 
capacions  barrel,  a  haunch  falliuo-  almost  to  the  hough,  deep  and  broad 
loin,  ample  hips,  and  considerable  lerir/th  of  body  in  proportion  to  heic/ht. 
One  qualification  should  ever  be  kept  in  view,  and,  perhaps,  should  be 
the  first  ^jom^  to  which  the  attention  should  be  directed,  viz.,  smallness 
of  bone. 

Let  the  boar  be  less  in  size  than  the  sow,  shorter  and  more  compact 
in  form,  with  a  raised  and  brawny  neck,  lively  eye,  small  head,  firm,  hard 
flesh,  and  his  neck  well  furnished  with  bristles — in  other  respects  seek 
the  same  points  we  have  described  in  reference  to  the  sow.  Breeding 
within  too  close  degrees  of  consanguinity,  or,  breeding  in  and  in,  is  calcn- 
lated  to  produce  degeneracy  in  size,  and  also  to  impair  fertility  ;  it  is 
tlierefore  to  be  avoided,  although  some  breeders  maintain  that  a  Jii\st 
cross  does  no  harm,  but  on  the  contrary,  that  it  produces  offspring  which 
are  disposed  to  arrive  earlier  at  maturity.  This  may  in  some  instances 
be  the  case;  it  is 'so  with  horned  cattle,  but  as  far  as  swine  are  con- 
cerned, it  is  not  my  own  experience. 

Diftcrences  of  opinion  exist  as  to  the  precise  age  of  boar  and  sow,  at 
which  breeding  is  most  advisable.  They  will,  if  permitted,  breed  at  the 
early  age  of  six  or  seven  months  ;  but  this  is  a  practice  not  to  be  recom- 
mended. My  advice  is,  to  let  the  sow  be  at  least  one  year  old,  and  the 
boar  at  least  eighteen  months;  but,  if  the  former  has  attained  her 
second  year,  and  the  latter  his  third,  a  vigorous  and  numerous  offspring 
are  more  likely  to  result.  The  boar  and  sow  retain  their  ability  to  breed 
for  about  five  years,  that  is,  until  the  former  is  upward  of  eight  years 
old,  and  the  latter  seven.  I  do  not  recommend  using  a  boar  after  he 
has  passed  his  fifth  year,  nor  a  sow  after  she  has  passed  her  fourth, 
unless  she  has  proved  a  peculiai'ly  valuable  breeder;  in  which  case,  she 
might  be  suffered  to  produce  two  or  three  more  litters.  When  you  are 
done  with  the  services  of  the  boar,  have  him  emasculated — an  operation 
that  can  be  performed  with  perfect  safety  at  any  age — fatten  or  sell 
him.  When  it  is  no  longer  desirable  to  breed  from  the  sow,  kill  her. 
Before  doing  so,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  put  her  to  the  boar,  as  she  takes 
fat  afterward  more  rapidly  than  she  otherwise  would. 

If  a  sow  be  of  a  stock  characterized  by  an  unusual  tendency  to  take 
fat,  it  is  well  to  breed  from  her  at  an  unusually  early  age — say  eight  or 
nine  months  ;  for  thistendency  to  fat,  in  a  breeding  sow,  is  highly  ob- 
jectionable, as  conducing  to  danger  in  parturition.  Let  her  have  the 
boar  a  couple  of  days  after  pigging,  and  let  her  breed  as  frequently  as 
she  is  capable  of  doing.  This  will  eftoctually  cheek  the  tendency  to 
fat;  and,  after  having  taken  a  few  litters  from  her,  you  will  find  the 
rapidity  with  which,  should  you  desire  her  for  the  butcher,  she  will 
take  flesh  quite  extraordinary.  In  the  case  of  such  a  sow,  do  not  give 
the  boar  before  putting  her  up  to  fatten. 

Feed  the  breeding  boar  well ;  keep  him  in  high  condition,  but  not 
fat ;  the  sow%  on  the  other  hand,  should  be  kept  somewhat  low,  until 
after  conception,  when  the  quantity  and  quality  of  her  food  should  be 
gradually  increased.     The  Dest  times  for  breeding  swine  are,  the  months 

46 


214  DOMESTIC    AJS'IMALS. 

of  March,  and  July  or  Ang-nst.  A  litter  obtained  later  than  x\ngnst 
has  nuich  to  contend  Avith,  and  seldom  proves  profitable  ;  some,  indeed, 
state  that  Avhen  such  an  occurrence  does  take  place,  whether  from  acci- 
dent or  neglect,  the  litter  is  not  worth  keeping.  It  is  little  nse,  how- 
ever, to  throw  any  thing  away.  Should  the  reader  at  any  time  have  a 
late  litter,  let  him  leave  them  with  tiie  sow;  feed  both  her  and  them 
with  warm  and  stimulating  food,  and  he  will  thus  have  excellent  pork, 
with  which  to  meet  the  market,  when  that  article  is  at  once  scarce  and 
dear,  and  consequently  profitable.  By  following  this  system  of  manage- 
ment, he  will  not  only  turn  his  late  litter  to  account,  but  actually  realize 
most  as  good  a  profit  as  if  it  had  been  produced  at  a  favorable  season. 

'\he  period  of  gestation  in  the  sow  varies ;  the  most  usual  period 
during  which  she  carries  her  young,  is  four  lunar  months,  or  sixteen 
weeks,  or  about  one  hundred  and  thirteen  days.  M.  Teissieur,  of  Paris, 
a  gentleman  who  paid  much  attention  to  this  subject,  in  connection  not 
merely  with  swine,  but  other  animals,  states  that  it  varies  from  one 
hundred  and  nine  to  one  hundred  and  forty-three  days;  he  formed  his 
calculation  from  the  attentive  observation  of  twenty-five  sows. 

The  sow  produces  from  eight  to  thirteen  young  ones  at  a  litter,  some- 
times even  more.  Extraordinary  fecundity,  is,  however,  not  desirable, 
for  a  sow  cannot  give  nourishment  to  more  young  than  she  has  teats 
for,  and,  as  the  number  of  teats  is  twelve,  when  a  thirteenth  one  is  lit- 
tered, he  does  not  fare  very  well.  The  sufferer  on  these  occasions  is  of 
course  the  smallest  and  weakest;  a  too  numerous  litter  are  all  indeed 
generally  undersized  and  weakly,  and  seldom  or  never  prove  profitable; 
a  litter  not  exceeding  ten,  will,  usually,  be  found  to  turn  out  most  ad- 
vantageously. On  account  of  the  discrepancy  subsisting  between  the 
number  fjirrowed  by  different  sows,  it  is  a  good  plan,  if  it  can  be  man- 
aged, to  have  more  than  one  breeding  at  the  same  time,  in  order 
tliat  you  may  equalize  the  number  to  be  suckled  by  each.  The  sow 
seldom  recognizes  the  presence  of  a  strange  little  one,  if  it  has  been 
introduced  among  the  others  during  her  absence,  and  has  lain  for  half 
an  hour  or  so  among  her  own  offspring  in  their  sty. 

While  the  sow  is  carrying  her  young,  feed  her  abundantly,  and  in- 
crease the  quantity  until  parturition  approaches  within  a  week  or  so, 
when  it  is  as  well  to  diminish  both  the  quantity  and  quality.  While 
she  gives  suck  you  cannot  feed  her  too  well.  You  may  wean  the  young 
at  eight  weeks  old,  and  should  remove  them  for  that  purpose  from  the 
sow;  feed  them  well,  frequently,  abundantly,  but  not  to  leaving,  and  on 
moist,  nutritious  food,  and  pay  particular  attention  to  their  lodgment — 
a  warm,  dry,  conifortable  bed  is  of  fully  as  much  consequence  as  feed- 
ing, if  not  even  of  more.  Should  the  sow  exhibit  any  tendency  to  de- 
vour its  young,  or  should  she  have  done  so  on  a  former  occasion,  strap 
up  her  mouth  for  the  first  three  or  four  days,  only  releasing  it  to  admit 
of  her  taking  her  meals.  Some  sows  are  apt  to  lie  upon,  and  crush 
their  young.  This  may  be  best  avoided  by  not  keeping  the  sow  too  fiit 
or  heavy,  and  by  not  leaving  too  many  young  upon  her.  Let  the  straw 
forming  the  bed  also  be  short,  and  not  in  too  great  quantity,  lest  the 
pigs  get  huddled  up  under  it,  and  the  sow  unconsciously  overlie  them  in 
that  condition. 


i 


THE  iioG.  215 

Tlie  yon  nor  pijrs  shonld  be  fifradnally  fed  before  pernianontly  weaning 
tlicin  ;  and  for  first  food,  notliinii^  is  so  good  as  milk,  which  may  be  snc- 
oceded  by  ordinary  dairy  wasli,  thickened  with  oat  or  barley-meal,  or 
line  pollard  ;  this  is  better  scalded,  or,  better  still,  boiled.  To  the  sow, 
some  dry  food  should  be  given  once  daily,  which  might  consist  of  pease, 
beans,  Swedish  turnips,  carrots,  parsnips,  or  the  like,  either  well  boiled 
or  raw  ;  but  I  prefer  the  food  to  be  always  boiled,  or,  what  is  still 
better,  steamed.  Some  wean  the  pigs  within  a  few  hours  after  birth, 
and  turn  the  sow  at  once  to  the  boar.  Under  certain  circumstances, 
this  may  be  found  advantageous;  but  I  think  that  the  best  mode  of 
management  is  to  turn  the  boar  into  the  hog-yard  about  a  week  after 
jiarturition,  at  which  time  it  is  proper  to  remove  the  sows  for  a  few 
liours  daily  from  their  young,  and  let  them  accept  his  overtures  when 
they  please.  It  does  not  injure  either  the  sow  or  her  young  if  she 
take  the  boar  while  suckling,  but  some  sows  will  not  do  so  until  the 
drying  of  their  milk. 

('•istratlon  and  Spaying  should  only  be  performed  on  such  as  you  in- 
tend to  keep,  as  you  do  not  know  what  a  purchaser's  wishes  on  the  sub- 
ject might  be.  It  is,  of  course,  unnecessary  for  me  to  give  any  direc- 
tions as  to  the  mode  of  performing  this  operatior,  as  no  amateur  should 
attempt  it;  and  men  who  make  the  practice  their  means  of  livelihood 
are,  in  every  district,  not  difficult  to  be  got  at,  or  exorbitant  in  their 
terms.  The  sow  is,  if  desirable,  to  be  spayed  while  suckling;  the  boar, 
as  we  have  already  stated,  may  be  castrated  at  any  age  with  perfect 
safety. 

Ringing. — At  weaning  time,  ring  the  young  pigs.  This  operation 
must  be  a  painful  one,  but  scarcely  so  much  so  as  the  little  sufferers 
would  seem  to  indicate.  Ringing  is,  however,  absolutely  necessary,  un- 
less the  caitilage  of  the  nose  be  cut  aivay^  a  practice  resorted  to  in  sub- 
stitution for  it  in  some  parts  of  England  ;  the  latter  practice  is,  however, 
far  more  cruel  than  ringing,  and  its  efficacy  is  by  many  stated  to  be  at 
the  best  questionable. 

After  about  five  weeks'  high  and  careful  feeding  subsequent  to  wean- 
ing, the  young  pigs  may  be  put  up  for  stores,  porkers,  etc.,  according  to 
your  views  respecting  them.  Very  young  pigs,  immediately  after  being 
weaned,  if  fed  on  the  refuse  of  a  dairy,  will  be  brought  up  for  delicious 
pork  in  five  or  six  weeks;  for  the  last  week  prior  to  killing,  the  addition 
of  grains  or  bruised  corn  will  impart  a  degree  of  firmness  to  the  flesh, 
that  is  considered  an  improvement.  This  is  called  "dairy-fed  pork," 
and  it  never  fails  to  fetch  an  enhanced  price,  thereby  amply  remuner- 
ating its  producer. 

Hogs  designed  for  pork  should  not  be  fattened  to  the  same  extent  as 
those  designed  for  bacon.  We  are  aware  that  it  will  be  vain  for  us  to 
request  the  reader  not  to  do  so,  as  fat  produces  weight — weight,  profit 
— and  profit  is  the  object  of  the  feeder.  But  to  those  who  feed  for 
home  consumption,  we  urge  the  suggestion,  and  they  will  find  their 
account  in  following  it.  I'orkers  should  be  suffered  to  run  at  large. 
Grazing,  or  the  run  of  a  wood  in  which  roots  or  nuts  may  be  met  with, 
is  calculated  in  an  eminent  degree  to  improve  the  quality  of  their  flesh. 
It  will  be  necessary  to  give  the  hogs  regular  meals,  independent  of  what 


216  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

they  can  thus  cater  for  themselves;  and  the  hours  for  so  doing  should 
be  in  the  morning,  before  they  are  let  out,  and  in  the  evening,  before 
they  are  returned  to  the  sty.  Too  many  swine  should  not  be  kept 
in  one  sty;  and  if  one  become  an  object  of  persecution  to  the  rest,  he 
should  be  withdrawn.  The  introduction  of  strangers  should  likewise  be 
avoided.  Bacon  hogs  fatten  best  by  themselves  ;  they  need  no  liberty; 
and  it  is  only  necessary  to  keep  the  sty  dry  and  clean,  and  to  feed 
abundantly,  in  order  to  prepare  them  for  the  knife.  In  order  to  fatten 
a  hog,  his  comforts  must  in  every  respect  be  attended  to. 

Those  who  make  pork-feeding  a  business,  and  consequently  keep  a 
number  of  these  animals,  should  so  manage  as  to  be  enabled  to  provide 
for  tlieir  maintenance  and  fattening  from  the  produce  of  their  crops. 
They  should  therefore  raise  the  potato,  beans,  pease,  barley,  buckwheat, 
flax,  parsnips,  carrots,  cabbage,  lettuce,  Lucerne,  Italian  rye-grass,  clover, 
rape,  chiccory,  and  vetches.  Nor  are  we  to  forget  the  important  articles, 
mangold  and  Swedish  turnips  ;  the  latter  especially,  as  being  an  article 
that  sad  necessity  has  recently,  for  the  first  time,  brought  into  the  full 
degree  of  notice  it  has  always  deserved  ;  and  an  article  that  is  now  found 
to  be  no  less  valuable  for  human  food  than  it  is  admitted  to  be  for  the 
food  of  cattle. 

The  best  possible  mode  of  feeding  hogs  is  with  a  mixture  of  two  or 
more  of  the  roots  or  plants  enumerated,  well  steamed,  and  a  little  meal 
or  bran  added,  or,  instead  of  meal  or  bran,  add  brewer's  grains,  wash, 
half-malted  barley,  pollard,  etc.  Let  these  be  well  boiled  and  given 
moderately  cool,  and  in  a  moist  state. 

Tlie  advantages  derivable  from  the  use  of  hay-tea  in  store-feeding  hogs 
was,  I  think,  for  the  first  time  demonstrated  to  the  public,  some  years 
ago,  by  Mr.  Saunders,  of  Stroud,  in  Gloucestershire.  Mr.  Saunders  was 
induced  to  try  this  diet  with  hog-s,  from  an  observation  of  its  efficacy  in 
weaning  calves;  his  experiments  were  attended  with  the  most  unquali- 
fied success. 

The  use  of  flax-seed,  as  an  addition  to  the  other  food  for  fc^ttening 
swine,  has  been  recommended,  but  is  found  not  to  answer  nearly  so  well 
in  the  crude  state  as  previously  kiln-dried,  and  well  crushed,  so  as  to 
crack  the  seed;  otherwise  the  animal  will  pass  a  large  proportion  of  the 
seed  in  a  whole  state;  the  whole  seed  acts  as  a  purgative  and  diuretic, 
which  will  be  opposed  to  the  secretion  of  fat.  To  prepare  the  seed  for 
food,  steep  them  for  twelve  hours  in  water,  which  may  be  poured  on 
them  in  a  tepid  state,  but  not  at  boiling  heat ;  and,  prior  to  giving  the 
mess,  add  as  much  lukewarm  wash  as  will  bring  it  to  the  consistence  of 
gruel.  This  wash  may  be  produced  from  brewers'  grains,  or  simply 
from  mangold  or  Swedish  turnips,  well  boiled  and  mashed,  and  given 
with  the  water  in  which  they  have  been  boiled  ;  the  addition  of  a  pro- 
portion of  bran  improves  the  mess,  and,  when  one  has  it,  it  should  not 
be  omitted. 

The  adoption  of  hay -tea  as  the  vehicle  for  mixing  these  ingredients, 
will  be  found  also  advantngeons.  Do  not  boil  the  flax-seed — boiling 
will  produce  a  coarse,  tough,  and  not  very  digestible  mass;  but  steep- 
ing, on  the  contrary,  furnishes  a  rich  and  nutritious  jelly.  Linseed  cake 
is  a  good   substitute  for  the  seed,  and  is  to  be  given  in  a  proportion  of 


THE  HOG.  217 

fourteen  pounds  for  seventeen  or  eighteen  pounds  of  ground  seed. 
Neither  sliouM  be  given,  except  in  combination  with  a  large  proportion 
of  other  substances,  as  they  are  of  a  very  greasy  nature,  and  are  apt  to 
impart  a  rank  flavor  to  flesh,  if  given  in  an  unmixed  state,  and  are 
actually  more  efticacious  in  combination.  If  you  have  plenty  of  meal, 
the  addition  of  a  little  to  the  daily  feeds  will  be  found  to  tell  well,  espe- 
cially toward  the  close  of  fattening,  a  few  weeks  previous  to  transferring 
your  stock  to  the  butcher. 

The  refuse  of  mills  forms  a  very  valuable  item  in  swine  food,  when 
mixed  with  such  boiled  roots  as  I  have  enumerated — as  starch  sounds, 
the  refuse  from  the  manufacture  of  that  article;  also  the  fibrous  refuse 
remaining  from  the  manufacture  of  potato-starch. 

Swine  are  frequently  kept  by  butchers,  and  are  fed  principally  upon 
the  garbage  of  the  shambles — as  entrails,  the  paunches,  lights,  and  the 
viscera  of  sheep  and  cattle,  as  well  as  the  blood.  Swine  are,  like  their 
human  owners,  omnivorous,  and  few  articles  come  amiss  to  them.  It 
must,  neverth.ek'ss,  be  confessed,  that  the  flesh  of  hogs  fed  on  animal 
food  is  rank  both  in  smell  and  taste,  and  readily  distinguishable  from 
that  produced  from  a  vegetable  diet.  I  am  not  unnecessarily  prejudiced, 
and  it  is  on  the  merits  of  the  case  alone  that  I  condemn  butcher-fed 
pork.  Pork  butchers,  resident  in  large  towns,  are  very  apt  to  feed 
chiefly  on  off'al  of  all  sorts,  including  that  arising  from  the  hogs  daily 
slain  and  dressed  for  the  market. 

There  is  yet  another  description  of  feeding — I  allude  to  the  feeding 
of  swine  in  knackers'  yards.  The  animals  are  kept  in  considerable  num- 
bers, and  are  fed  wholly  upon  the  refuse  of  dead  horses — chiefly  the 
entrails,  the  carcass  being  in  too  great  demand  among  those  who  keep 
dogs  to  permit  of  it  being  unnecessarily  wasted.  Nor  are  these  horses 
always  fresh,  the  swine  reveling  in  corruption,  and  disputing  with  the 
maggot  the  possession  of  a  mass  of  liquid  putrefaction.  And  are  we  to 
say  nothing  of  the  number  of  horses  who  die  of  glanders,  farcy,  or  some 
similarly  frightful  contagious  and  incurable  disorder?  How  can  we  be 
certain  that  this  is  not  one  of  the  many  sources  whence  occasionally 
spring  apparently  causeless  pestilences  or  malignant  epidemics?  While 
such  a  practice  is  tolerated,  with  what  caution  should  we  not  purchase 
bacon  or  pork,  lest  we  should  thus  eat  at  second-hand  of  substances  so 
revolting  to  the  feelings,  so  dangerous  to  individual  and  public  health  ! 

Chandlers'  Greaves  are  likewise  objectionable  as  food  for  swine,  unless 
given  in  comparatively  small  quantities,  and  mixed  with  bran,  meal,  and 
boiled  roots.  If  fed  wholly  on  either  greaves,  or  oil-cake,  or  flax-seed, 
the  flesh  becomes  loose,  unsubstantial,  and  carriony ;  and  gives  out  a 
flavor  resenibling  that  of  rancid  oil. 

Hogs  that  have  been  fed  chiefly  on  corn,  alternated  with  the  vegetable 
diet  already  described,  produce  pork  nearly  equal  in  delicacy  of  flavor, 
whiteness  of  color,  and  consequent  value,  to  that  well-known,  delicious 
article,  dairy  pork.  Indian  corn  is  most  useful  in  feeding  and  in  fatten- 
ing pigs;  it  should  be  employed  in  conjunction  with  oat  or  barley  meal, 
or  some  other  equally  nutritious  matter. 

Respecting  the  quality  of  food,  vast  numbers  of  bacon  hogs  are  almost 
invariably  fed  upon  potatoes;  but  however  apparently  satisfactory  may 
10 


218  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

be  their  weight  and  condition,  yet,  when  slaughtered  immediately,  or 
before  having  several  weeks  of  substantial  food,  to  harden  their  flesh, 
they  are  always  found  inferior  to  corn-fed  pork  and  bacon,  the  fat  hav- 
ing'a  tallowy  appearance,  of  an  insipid  taste,  and  shrinking  for  want  of 
firmness  ;  whereas,  when  boiled,  it  should  be  transparently  hard,  with  a 
tinge  of  pink  in  its  color  ;  the  flavor  should  be  good,  and  the  meat  should 
swell  in  the  pot.  Potatoes,  therefore,  though  fine  food  for  stores,  should 
never  be  used  alone  as  sustenance  in  the  fatting  of  bacon  hogs;  for,  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  employed,  it  will  render  the  flesh  and  conse- 
quently the  price,  inferior  to  that  of  hogs  which  have  been  properly 
fed.  They  are,  however,  frequently  employed,  when  steamed,  in  con- 
junction with  either  tail  or  stained  barley,  coarsely  ground ;  and  farmers 
who  grow  potatoes  for  the  market  may  thus  profitably  dispose  of  the 
chats  along  with  their  unmarketable  corn  ;  but  those  persons  who  wish 
to  acquire  a  reputation  for  producing  fine  bacon,  should  never  use  any 
thing  for  fatting  but  hard  meat,  together  with  skim-milk,  if  it  can  be 
procured. 

When  swine  are  not  of  very  large  size,  and  it  is  desirable  to  raise 
pork  rather  than  bacon,  a  very  economical  mode  of  feeding  may  be 
advantageously  employed  : — it  consists  of  equal  parts  of  boiled  Swedish 
turnips  or  potatoes,  and  bran.  If  it  be  desirable  to  render  the  accumu- 
lation of  fat  more  rapid,  let  Indian  meal  be  substituted  for  the  bran,  and 
in  flax-growing  countries,  the  seed  prepared  as  already  directed. 

A  hog  washed  weekly  with  soap  and  a  brush  will  be  fountl  to  thrive, 
and  put  up  flesh  in  a  ratio  of  at  least  five  to  three,  in  comparison  to  a 
pig  not  so  treated.  This  fact  has  been  well  tried,  there  can  be  no  pos- 
sible question  about  its  correctness,  and  the  duty  is  not  a  very  difficult 
matter  to  perform,  for  the  swine,  as  soon  as  they  discover  the  real  char- 
acter of  the  operation,  are  far  from  being  disposed  to  object,  and  after 
a  couple  of  washings,  submit  with  the  best  grace  imaginable. 

Beware  not  to  Surfeit  your  hogs.  It  is  quite  possible  to  give  too 
much  even  to  them,  and  to  produce  disease  by  over-feeding. 

Many  examples  of  great  weights,  produced  by  judicious  feeding  and 
management,  are  upon  record.  Mr.  Crockford's  Sufl'olk  hog,  at  two 
years  old,  weighed  nine  hundred  and  eighty  pounds ;  but  I  scarcely 
think  it  could  have  been  true  Suffolk,  that  being  a  small  breed.  Mr. 
Ivory's  Shropshire  hog  weighed  fourteen  hundred,  when  killed  and 
dressed,  and  there  was,  a  short  time  since,  a  specimen  of  the  improved 
Irish  breed  of  hog  exhibited  in  Dublin,  at  the  Portobello  Gardens,  which 
weighed  upward  of  twelve  hundred  weight;  this,  when  killed,  would 
have  amounted  to  something  over  half  a  ton. 

In  conclusion,  observe  caution  in  conjunction  with  the  directions  already 
given  relative  to  feeding. 

1.  Avoid  foul  feeding. 

2.  Do  NOT  omit  adding  salt  in  moderate  quantities  to  the  mess 
given  ;  you  will  find  your  account  in  attending  to  this. 

3.  Feed  at  regular  intervals. 

4.  Cleanse  the  troughs  previous  to  feeding. 

5.  Do  not  over-feed  ;  give  only  as  much  as  will  be  consumed  at 
the  meal. 


THE   HOG.  219 

6.  Vary  tour  bill  of  fare.  Variety  will  create,  or,  at  all  events, 
increase  appetite,  and  it  is  further  most  conducive  to  health;  let  your 
variations  be  guided  by  the  state  of  the  dung  cast ;  this  should  be  of 
medium  consistence,  and  of  a  grayish-brown  color ;  if  hard,  increase 
the  quantity  of  bran  and  succulent  roots  ;  if  too  liquid,  diminish,  or 
dispense  with  bran,  and  let  the  mess  be  firmer ;  if  you  can,  add  a  por- 
tion of  corn — that  which  is  injured,  and  thus  rendered  unfit  for  other 
purposes,  will  be  found  to  answer  well. 

7.  Feed  your  stock  separately,  in  classes,  according  to  their  rela- 
tive conditions;  keep  sows  in  young  by  themselves;  stores  by  them- 
selves ;  and  bacon  hogs  and  porkers  by  themselves.  It  is  not  advisable 
to  keep  your  stores  too  high  in  flesh,  for  high  feeding  is  calculated  to 
retard  development  of  form  and  bulk.  It  is  better  to  feed  pigs  intend- 
ed to  be  put  up  for  bacon,  loosely,  and  not  too  abundantly,  until  they 
liave  attained  their  full  stature  ;  you  can  then  bring  them  into  the 
highest  possible  condition  in  an  inconceivably  short  space  of  time. 

8.  Do  NOT  regret  the  loss  or  scarcity  of  potatoes,  so  far  as 
swine-feeding  is  concerned.  Its  loss  has  been  the  means  of  stimulating 
inquiry  and  producing  experiment,  which  has  resulted  in  the  discovery 
that  many  other  superior  vegetables  have  been  hitherto  neglected  and 
foolishly  passed  aside. 

9.  Do  NOT  neglect  to  keep  your  swine  clean,  dry,  and  warm. 
These  are  essentials,  and  not  a  whit  less  imperative  than  feeding,  for 
an  inferior  description  of  food  will,  by  their  aid,  succeed  far  better  than 
the  highest  feeding  will  without  them  ;  and  we  would  reiterate  the 
benefit  derivable  from  washing  your  hogs ;  this  will  repay  your  trouble 
manifold. 

10.  Watch  the  markets.  Sell  when  you  see  a  reasonable  profit 
before  you.  Many  and  many  a  man  has  swamped  himself  by  giving 
way  to  covetousness,  and  by  desiring  to  realize  an  unusual  amount  of 
gain ;  recollect  how  very  fluctuating  are  the  markets,  and  that  a  certain 
gain  is  far  better  than  the  risk  of  loss. 

Time  Requisite  for  Feeding  Fat— Quantity  of  Food.— This  will,  of  course, 
vary  very  considerably,  according  to  the  weight,  age,  breed,  and  condi- 
tion of  the  store  when  first  put  up,  as  well  as  the  description  of  food 
on  which,  up  to  that  period,  the  animal  has  been  fed.  The  same  ob- 
servations are  applicable  to  the  quantity  of  food  required  for  the  pro- 
duction of  fat. 

If  a  young  store,  five  or  six  weeks  may  be  sufliicient ;  if  older,  six  or 
eight ;  and  if  of  the  mature  age,  intended  for  a  perfect  bacon  hog,  of 
that  moderate  degree  of  size  and  fatness  which  is  preferred  for  the  gen- 
eral consumption  of  the  middle  classes,  from  twelve  to  fourteen.  A 
bacon  hog,  if  intended  to  be  thoroughly  fattened  for  farm  use,  should, 
however,  be  of  a  large  breed,  and  brought  to  such  a  state  as  not  to  be 
able  to  rise  without  diflSculty,  and  will,  perhaps,  require  five  or  six 
months,  or  even  more,  to  bring  him  to  that  condition.  This,  however, 
supposes  him  to  be  completely  fat;  to  ascertain  which  with  perfect  ac- 
curacy, he  ought  to  be  weighed  every  week  during  the  latter  part  of 
the  process ;  for  although  his  appetite  will  gradually  fall  oft*  as  he  in- 
creases in  fat,  yet  the  flesh  which  he  will  acquire  will  also  diminish, 


220  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

until  at  last  it  will  not  pay  for  his  food,  and  he  should  then  be  immedi- 
ately slaughtered. 

The  Chemestry  of  Pig-Feeding. — In  1851-2,  with  the  view  of  ascertain- 
ing, among  other  points,  the  comparative  vahie  of  various  kinds  of  food 
used  for  fattening  pigs,  Mr.  J..  1>.  Lawes,  of  Rothamsted,  Herts,  the 
eminent  chemist  and  manufacturer  of  super-phosphate  of  lime,  under- 
took a  series  of  experiments  on  a  large  scale,  recorded  in  a  paper  illus- 
trated by  a  series  of  elaborate  tables,  which  occupy  upwards  of  eighty 
pai^es  of  the  fourteenth  volume  of  the  "Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricul- 
tural Society."  This  paper,  of  the  highest  possible  value  to  the  scien- 
tific agriculturist,  few  plain  larmers  or  mncy  pig-feeders  would  have  the 
courage  to  read,  or  would  be  able  fully  to  understand,  if  they  did.  We 
shall,  therefore,  endeavor  to  give  the  results  briefly  and  plainly;  they 
fully  confirm  the  opinions  of  the  most  successful  pig-feeders. 

The  food  employed  in  these  experiments  was  composed  as  follows: — 
1.  Equal  weights  of  beans  and  lentils;  2.  Indian  corn;  3.  Bran.  The 
food  was  accurately  weighed ;  and  the  animals  were  put  into  the  scales 
every  fourteen  days. 

For  the  first  series  of  experiments,  forty  animals,  as  nearly  as  possible 
of  the  same  character,  and  age  about  ten  months,  were  purchased,  and 
divided  into  twelve  pens  of  three  pigs  each,  and  were  all  fed  alike  for 
twelve  days,  changed  from  pen  to  pen,  and  the  unruh^  ones  whipped,  so 
as  to  put  down  the  tyrants  and  enable  them  all  to  start  fair  in  the  feed- 
ing race  for  weight.  When  fairly  started,  twelve  dietaries  were  pre- 
pared from  three  standard  food-stuffs,  arranged  as  follows  : — 1.  Bean 
and  lentil  mixture,  an  unlimited  allowance ;  2.  Two  pounds  of  Indian 
corn  per  pig  per  day,  and  an  unlimited  allowance  of  the  beans  and 
lentils;  3.  Two  pounds  of  bran  per  pig  per  day,  and  beans  and  lentils 
unlimited ;  4.  Two  pounds  of  Indian  corn,  two  pounds  of  bran,  and 
the  bean  and  lentil  mixture  unlimited;  5.  Indian  corn  alone,  unlimited; 
6.  Two  pounds  of  beans  and  lentils,  and  unlimited  Indian  corn  allow- 
ance ;  7.  Two  pounds  of  bran  per  day,  and  unlimited  Indian  corn 
allowance;  8.  Two  pounds  of  bean  and  lentil  mixture,  two  pounds  of 
bran,  and  Indian  corn  unlimited  ;  9.  Two  pounds  of  bean  and  lentil 
mixture,  and  bran  unlimited;  10.  Two  pounds  of  Indian  corn-meal, 
and  bran  unlimited;  11.  Two  pounds  of  bean  and  lentil  mixture,  two 
pounds  of  Indian  corn,  and  bran  unlimited;  12.  Bean  and  lentil  mix- 
ture, Indian  corn-meal  and  bran,  each  separately  and  unlimited. 

This  food  was  duly  mixed  with  water.  The  animals  were  fed  three 
times  a  day ;  viz.,  early  in  the  morning,  at  noon,  and  at  five  o'clock  in 
the  evening.  The  limited  food  was  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  that 
given  ad  libilum  in  the  first  two  feeds  of  the  day.  Great  care  was 
taken  in  the  management  of  the  supply  of  food,  both  that  the  troughs 
should  generally  be  cleared  out  before  fresh  food  was  put  into  them, 
and  that  the  pigs  should  always  have  a  liberal  supply  within  their 
reach. 

In  one  of  the  pens  two  of  the  pigs  having  become  unwell  from  large 
swellings  in  their  necks,  which  affected  their  breathing,  a  mixture  was 
prepared,  consisting  of  twenty  pounds  of  finely-sifted  coal-ashes,  four 
pounds  of  common  salt,  and  one  pound  of  super-phosphate  of  lime,  and 


THE    HOG.  221 

placed  in  a  trough.  The  pigs  devonred  it  with  eagerness ;  and,  from 
this  time,  the  tumors  began  to  diminish,  and  entirely  disappeared  in 
six  weeks.  Three  pigs  consumed  nine  pounds  in  the  first  fortnight,  six 
pounds  in  the  second,  and  nine  pounds  during  the  third. 

Three  sets  of  pigs,  each  divided  into  twelve  pens  of  three  pigs  each, 
were  devoted  to  three  series  of  experiments,  with  the  various  quantities 
of  the  food  mentioned  ;  in  one  series  barley-meal  taking  the  place  of 
Indian  corn,  and  the  third  series  being  devoted  to  the  trial  of  dried 
Newfoundland  codfish — an  article  which  could  be  supplied  in  large 
quantities  at  a  moderate  price,  in  connection  with  the  other  food  named. 
The  amount  given  varied  from  one  to  two  pounds  of  codfish  per  day. 
It  was  in  all  cases  boiled,  and  a  portion  of  other  food  mixed  with  the 
soup  thus  obtained. 

The  following  are  the  more  simple  of  the  conclusions  at  which  Mr. 
Lawes  arrived  :  Indian  corn  or  barley-meal  with  a  limited  supply  of 
bran  is  very  good  food,  the  bran  adding  to  the  value  of  the  manure. 
Where  the  pigs  had  unlimited  access  to  three  kinds  of  food,  viz.,  the 
highly  nitrogenous  pulse  mixture,  the  non-nitrogenous  Indian  meal,  and 
bran,  which  is  moderately  nitrogenous — they  gradually  discontinued  the 
proportion  of  their  consumption  of  the  first,  as  they  approached  matur- 
ity, and  throughout  only  consumed  five  per  cent,  of  bran.  The  average 
consumption  of  corn  per  pig  per  week  was  sixty  pounds,  or  about  nine 
pounds  per  day,  which  produced  ten  to  twelve  pounds  of  meat  per 
week,  or  about  one  and  a  half  pounds  per  day.  There  was  a  very  rapid 
decrease  in  the  rate  of  consumption  of  food  to  a  given  weight  of  animal 
as  it  fattened.  The  nearer  a  fattening  animal  approached  maturity,  the 
greater  was  the  proportion  of  fat  in  the  gross  increase  obtained. 

Indian  corn  and  barley-meal  contain  less  than  two  per  cent,  nitrogen, 
bran  about  two  and  three-quarters  per  cent.,  beans  and  lentils  about 
four  and  a  half  per  cent.,  and  dried  codfish  about  six  and  a  half  per 
cent.  Dried  codfish  contains  less  than  one  per  cent,  of  fatty  matter, 
beans  and  lentils  two  and  a  quarter  per  cent.,  barley-meal  about  the 
same,  and  Indian  corn  and  bran  about  five  per  cent. 

It  was  found  that  "the  larger  the  proportion  of  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds in  the  food,  the  greater  was  the  tendency  to  increase  in  frame 
and  flesh,  but  that  the  maturing  or  ripening  of  the  animal,  in  fact,  its 
fattening,  depended  very  much  more  on  the  amount  of '  certain  digesti- 
ble non-nitrogenous  constituents  in  the  food.'  It  also  appeared  that 
some  of  the  cheaper  highly  nitrogenous  foods  would  produce  a  given 
amount  of  gross  increase  more  economically  than  the  expensive  ones 
(peas,  beans)  which  are  usually  preferred  by  pork-feeders. 

"■  If  the  amount  of  gross  produce  in  meat  in  return  for  a  given 
amount  of  food,  of  a  given  money  value — is  alone  to  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration, then,  in  addition  to  roots,  wash,  etc.,  it  would  be  most  ad- 
vantageous to  rely  for  fattening  upon  highly  nitrogenous  foods,  such  as 
dried  fish,  or  animal  refuse,  or  leguminous  seeds,  beans,  lentils,  and  the 
like,  because  not  only  would  the  weight  be  obtained  at  less  cost  than 
by  the  use  of  cereal  grains,  but  the  manure — the  value  of  which  must 
never  be  lost  sight  of  in  calculatfng  the  economy  of  the  feed  process — 
would  be  much  richer  than  if  the  latter  were  employed.     But  it  is  not 


222  DOMESTIC   AITTMALS. 

a  large  amount  of  gross  increase  tliat  makes  the  farmer's  profit  upon 
his  sties.  When  pigs  are  fed  freely  upon  highly  succulent  food,  such 
as  cooked  roots,  the  refuse  of  starch,  herbs,  and  the  like,  they  are  fre- 
quently found  to  give  a  very  rapid  increase.  But  pork  so  fed  is  found 
to  sink  rapidly  in  the  salting  process,  and  to  waste  considerably  when 
boiled.  And  although  the  first  batch  of  pigs  so  fed  may  fetch  a  good 
price,  their  character  is  at  once  detected,  and  the  market  closed  against 
a  second  sale. 

"On  the  other  hand,  when  pigs  are  fattened  upon  the  highly  nitro- 
genized  leguminous  seeds — peas  being,  however,  much  less  objection- 
able than  some  others — the  lean  is  hard,  and  the  fat  wastes  in  cooking. 
Fish,  flesh,  and  strong  oily  matters  give  the  pork  a  rank  flavor. 

"Finally,  it  is  the  interest  of  the  farmer  to  use  highly  nitrogenous 
leguminous  seeds,  and  even  refuse  flesh,  if  at  command,  during  the 
earlier  and  growing  stages  of  his  bacon  hogs.  But  if  a  constant  mar- 
ket is  to  be  secured  for  pork,  barley-meal  or  other  cereal  grain  must 
supersede  every  thing  else  as  fattening  proceeds."  Thus  Mr.  Lawes 
confirms  Mr.  Tyrrel,  and  gives  us  a  golden  maxim  for  making  a  pig  pay 
— a  little  bran  or  bean  meal,  and  plenty  of  Indian  corn. 

Diseases  of  Swine. — In  order  to  prescribe  with  any  reasonable  hopes  of 
success,  for  any  animal,  a  knowledge  of  that  animal's  anatomy,  physiol- 
ogy, and  habits  when  in  health,  are  indispensable,  and  an  intimate  ac- 
quaintance with  the  characters  of  the  substances  employed  as  remedies, 
we  would  not  recommend  you  to  place  any  confidence  in  books  pub- 
lished by  quacks,  and  purporting  to  contain  infallible  specifics  for  the 
several  diseases  to  which  live-stock  are  liable.  Veterinary  text-books, 
written  by  competent  persons,  are  very  diff'erent  things.  A  host  of 
honorable  names  stand  upon  record,  on  the  face  of  their  publications, 
in  proof  of  the  correctness  of  my  assertion.  By  diligent  study  of  these 
books,  farmers  might,  I  have  little  doubt,  eventually  arrive  at  a  very 
respectable  share  of  veterinary  knowledge ;  acquire  a  tolerable  idea  of 
the  internal  structure  of  the  several  inhabitants  of  the  farm-yard,  and 
of  their  physiology ;  by  practical  observation  they  would  become  able 
to  detect  the  presence  of  disease  from  the  symptoms  present,  and  be 
able  to  adopt  such  a  course  of  treatment  as  might  be  suggested  in  the 
books  they  possessed.  Under  these  circumstances,  apply,  if  possible,  to 
a  regular  veterinary  surgeon. 

Swine  are  by  no  means  the  most  tractable  of  patients.  It  is  any 
thing  but  an  easy  matter  to  compel  them  to  swallow  any  thing  to  which 
their  appetite  does  not  incite  them,  and  hence,  "  prevention  "  will  be 
found  "  better  than  cure."  Cleanhness  is,  in  my  opinion,  the  great  point 
to  be  insisted  upon  in  swine  management ;  if  this,  and  warmth,  be  duly 
attended  to,  the  animal  will  not,  save  in  one  case  perhaps  in  a  hundred, 
become  afi'ected  with  any  ailment. 

As,  however,  even  under  the  most  careful  system  of  management,  an 
occasional  disappointment  may  occur,  the  reader  is  furnished  with  the 
following  brief  view  of  the  principal  complaints  by  which  some  are,  un- 
der the  most  unfavorable  circumstances,  liable  to  be  attacked,  and  the 
plainest  eflfectual  mode  of  sanatory  treatment,  in  such  cases,  to  be 
adopted. 


THE   HOG.  223 

The  principal  diseases  to  which  swine  are  liable  are  : — ].  Fever;  2. 
Leprosy;  3.  Murrain ;  4.  Measles;  5.  Jaundice;  6.  Foul  skin;  1.  Mange; 
8.  Staggers;  9.  Cracklings;  10.  "Ratille,"  or  swelling  of  the  spleen; 
11.  Indigestion,  or  surfeit;  12.  Lethargy;  13.  Heavings;  14.  "  Diar- 
rhcea;"   15.  Quinsy;  16.  Tumors;   17.  Catarrh. 

All  which  dangerous  and  often  fatal  maladies  may  be  prevented  from 
occurring  by  the  simple  attention  to  cleanliness  already  recommended, 
with  judicious  feeding.  A  hog  can  be  relieved  by  bleeding,  when  such 
an  operation  will  effect  relief,  whether  he  like  to  submit  or  not ;  but  it 
is  very  questionable  whether  he  can  be  compelled  to  swallow  medicines 
without  his  perfect  consent  and  concurrence;  these,  therefore,  will  best 
be  administered  by  stratagem,  and  the  hog's  aiypetite  is  the  only  assail- 
able point  he  has. 

Fever. — The  symptoms  are,  redness  of  the  eyes,  dryness  and  heat  of 
the  nostrils,  the  lips,  and  the  skin  generally ;  appetite  gone,  or  very  de- 
fective, and  the  presence,  usually,  of  a  very  violent  thirst.  Of  course, 
BO  symptom  can  be  regarded  as  individually  indicative  of  the  presence 
of  any  particular  disease ;  these,  which  1  have  named,  might,  indi- 
vidually, indicate  the  presence  of  many  other  disorders,  nay,  of  no  dis- 
order at  all,  but  collectively,  they  point  to  the  presence  of  fever  as 
their  origin. 

Let  the  animal,  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  appearance  of  these 
symptoms,  be  bled,  by  cutting  the  veins  at  the  back  of  his  ears.  The 
pressure  of  the  finger  raises  the  vein,  and  you  can  then  puncture  it  with 
a  lancet.  If  the  bleeding  from  this  channel  be  not  sufficiently  copious, 
you  must  cut  off  a  portion  of  his  tail ;  and  after  bleeding  let  him  be 
warmly  housed,  but,  at  the  same  time,  while  protected  from  cold  and 
draughts,  let  the  sty  be  well  and  thoroughly  ventilated,  and  its  inmate 
supplied  with  a  constant  succession  of  fresh  air.  The  bleeding  will 
usually  be  followed,  in  an  hour  or  two,  by  such  a  return  of  appetite  as 
to  induce  the  animal  to  eat  a  sufficient  quantity  of  food  to  admit  of 
your  making  it  the  vehicle  for  administering  such  internal  remedies  as 
may  seem  advisable.  The  best  vehicle  is  bread  steeped  in  broth.  The 
hog,  however,  sinks  so  rapidly,  when  once  he  loses  his  appetite  that  no 
depletive  medicines  are  in  general  necessary  or  suitable ;  the  fever  will 
usually  be  found  to  yield  to  the  bleeding,  and  your  only  object  need  be 
the  support  of  the  animal's  strength,  by  small  portions  of  nourishing 
food,  administered  frequently. 

Do  not,  however,  at  any  time  suffer  your  patient  to  eat  as  much  as 
his  inclination  might  prompt;  the  moment  he  appears  to  be  no  longer 
ravenous^  remove  the  mess,  and  do  not  offer  it  again  until  after  a  lapse 
of  three  or  four  hours.  It  is  a  singular  fact,  that  as  the  hog  surpasses 
every  other  animal  in  the  facility  with  which  he  acquires  fat,  he  likewise 
surpasses  all  others  in  the  rapidity  with  which  his  strength  becomes  pros- 
trated when  once  his  appetite  deserts  him.  The  French  veterinarian 
practice  recommends  the  addition  of  peppermint  to  the  bread  and  broth. 
If  the  animal  be  not  disgusted  by  the  smell,  it  may  be  added  ;  and  if 
the  bowels  be  confined,  the  addition  of  castor  and  linseed  oil^  in  equal 
quantities,  and  in  the  proportion  of  two  to  six  ounces,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  hog,  should  not  be  omitted. 


221  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

If  you  find  3-onrself  unable  to  restore  the  animal's  appetite,  the  case 
is  nearly  hopeless,  and  you  may  regard  its  return  as  one  of  the  most  in-^ 
faUible  symptoms  of  returning  convalescence.  It  is,  however,  poHsible 
to  administer  medicine  to  the  pig  hy  force ;  although,  for  my  own  part, 
I  cannot  say  that  I  have  ever  found  it  practicable. 

There  is  a  description  of  fever  that  frequently  occurs  as  an  epizootic. 
It  often  attacks  the  male  pigs,  and  generally  the  most  vigorous  and  the 
best-looking,  without  any  distinction  of  age,  and  with  a  force  and 
promptitude  absolutely  astonishing;  for  in  the  space  of  twelve  hours,  I 
have  sometimes  seen  a  whole  piggery  succumb :  at  other  times  its  pro- 
gress is  much  slower;  the  symptoms  are  less  intense  and  less  alarming; 
and  the  veterinary  surgeon,  employed  at  the  commencement  of  the  at 
tack,  may  promise  himself  some  success. 

The  Causes  of  the  Disease  are,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  the  bad  sties 
in  which  the  pigs  are  lodged,  and  the  noisome  food  which  they  often 
contain.  The  food  which  the  pigs  meet  with  and  devour,  are  the  re- 
mains of  mouldy  bread  and  fruit,  especially  those  of  pease  and  lentils — 
the  fermentation  and  decomposition  of  which  farinaceous  substances,  and 
especially  the  bran  which  is  too  frequently  given  to  them,  and  the  pro- 
longed action  of  which  determine  the  most  serious  in  the  whole  economy. 
In  addition  to  this,  is  the  constant  lying  on  the  dung  heap,  whence  is 
exhaled  a  vast  quantity  of  deh-terious  gas;  also,  where  they  remain  far 
too  long,  on  the  muddy  or  arid  ground,  or  are  too  long  exposed  to  the 
rigor  of  the  season. 

As  soon  as  a  pig  is  attacked  with  disease,  he  should  be  separated  from 
the  others,  placed  in  a  warm  situation,  some  stimulating  ointment  to  be 
applied  to  the  chest,  and  a  decoction  of  sorrel  administered.  Frictions 
of  vinegar  should  be  applied  to  the  dorsal  and  lunibaf  region.  The 
drinks  should  be  emollient,  slightly  imbued  with  nitre  and  vinegar,  and 
with  aromatic  fumigation  about  the  belly.  If  the  fever  now  appears  to 
be  losing  ground,  which  may  be  ascertained  by  the  regularity  of  the 
pulse,  by  the  absence  of  the  plaintive  cries  that  were  before  heard,  by  a 
respiration  less  laborious,  by  the  absence  of  convulsions,  and  by  the  non- 
appearance of  blotches  on  the  skin,  there  is  a  fair  chance  of  recovery. 
We  may  then  be  content  to  administer,  every  second  hour,  the  drinks 
and  the  lavements  already  prescribed,  and  to  give  the  patient  his  proper 
allowance  of  white  water,  with  ground  barley  and  rye.  When,  how- 
ever, instead  of  these  fortunate  results,  the  symptoms  are  redoubling  in 
intensity,  it  will  be  best  to  destroy  the  animal ;  for  it  is  rare,  that,  after 
a  certain  period,  there  is  much  or  any  chance  of  recovery.  Bleeding, 
at  the  ear  or  tail,  is  seldom  of  much  avail,  but  occasionally  produces 
considerable  loss  of  vital  power,  and  augments  the  putrid  diathesis. 

Leprosy. — The  symptoms  of  this  complaint  usually  commence  with 
the  formation  of  a  small  tumor  in  the  eye,  followed  by  general  prostra- 
tion of  spirits  ;  the  head  is  held  down  and  the  whole  frame  inclines 
toward  the  grouiid  :  universal  languor  succeeds  ;  the  animal  refuses  food, 
languishes,  and  rapidly  falls  away  in  flesh  ;  blisters  soon  make  their 
appearance  beneath  the  tongue,  then  upon  the  throat,  the  jaws,  the  head, 
and  the  entire  body.  The  flesh  of  a  leprous  pig  is  said  to  possess  most 
pernicious  qualities,  and  to  be  wholly  unfit  for  human  food      If  the 


THE  HOG.  225 

animal  be  killed  in  the  very  first  stag-e  of  the  disease,  however,  the 
atiection  is  only  superficial,  the  flesh  nothing  the  worse,  but  rather  im- 
proved in  tenderness,  and  indeed,  not  to  be  distinguished  from  that  of 
a  perfectly  sound  animal.  The  cause  of  this  disease  is  want  of  clean- 
liness, absence  of  fresh  air,  want  of  due  attention  to  ventilation,  and  foul 
feeding.  The  obvious  cure  therefore  is — first,  bleed  ;  clean  out  the  sty 
daily  ;  wash  the  affected  animal  thoroughly  with  soap  and  water,  to 
which  soda  or  potash  has  been  added  ;  supply  him  with  a  clean  bed  ; 
keep  him  dry  and  comfortable  ;  let  him  have  gentle  exercise  and  plenty 
of  fresh  air;  limit  the  quantity  of  his  food,  and  diminish  its  rankness  ; 
give  bran  with  wash,  in  which  you  may  add,  for  an  average-sized  hog,  say 
one  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  pounds'  weight,  a  tablespoonful  of  the  flour 
of  sulphur,  with  as  much  nitre  as  will  cover  a  sixpence,  daily.  A  few 
grains  of  powdered  antimony  may  also  be  given  with  eff"ect. 

Murrain. — Resembles  leprosy  in  its  symptoms,  with  the  addition  of 
staggering,  shortness  of  breath,  discharge  of  viscid  matter  from  the  eyes 
and  the  mouth.  The  treatment  should  consist  of  cleanliness,  coolness, 
bleeding,  purging,  and  limitation  of  food.  Cloves  of  garlic  have  been 
recommended  to  be  administered  in  cases  of  murram.  Garlic  is  an 
antiseptic,  and  as,  in  all  these  febrile  diseases,  there  exists  more  or  less  a 
degree  of  disposition  to  putrefaction,  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  may  be 
found  useful. 

Measles. — This  is  one  of  the  most  common  diseases  to  which  hogs  are 
liable.  The  symptoms  are  redness  of  the  eyes,  foulness  of  the  skin,  depres- 
sion of  spirits,  decline,  or  total  departure  of  the  appetite,  small  pustules 
about  the  throat,  and  red  and  purple  eruptions  on  the  skin.  These  last 
are  more  plainly  visible  after  death,  when  they  impart  a  peculiar  appear- 
ance to  the  grain  of  the  m.eat,  with  fading  of  its  color,  and  distension  of 
the  fiber  so  as  to  give  an  appearance  similar  to  that  which  might  be 
produced  by  puncturing  the  flesh. 

Suffer  the  animal  to  fast,  in  the  first  instance,  for  twenty-four  hours, 
and  then  administer  a  warm  drink,  containing  a  drachm  of  carbonate  of 
soda  and  an  ounce  of  bole  Armenian  ;  wash  the  animal,  cleanse  the  sty, 
and  change  the  bedding;  give  at  every  feeding,  say  thrice  a  day,  thirty 
grains  of  flour  of  sulphur,  and  ten  of  nitre.  It  is  to  dirt,  combined  with 
a  common  fault  too  little  -thought  of,  viz.,  giving  the  steamed  food  or 
wash  to  the  hogs  at  too  high  a  temperature,  that  this  disease  is  generally 
to  be  attributed.  It  is  a  troublesome  malady  to  eradicate,  but  usually 
yields  to  treatment,  and  is  rarely  fatal. 

Jaundice. — Symptoms — yellowness  of  the  white  of  the  eye,  a  similar 
hue  extending  to  the  lips,  with  sometimes,  but  not  invariably,  swelling 
of  the  under  part  of  the  jaw.  Bleed  behind  the  ear,  diminish  the  quan- 
tity of  food,  and  give  a  smart  aperient  every  second  day.  Aloes  are, 
perhaps,  the  best,  combined  with  colocynth  :  the  dose  will  vary  with 
the  size  of  the  animal. 

Foul  Skin. — A  simple  irritability  or  foulness  of  the  skin  will  usually 
yield  to  cleanliness  and  a  washing  with  solution  of  chloride  of  lime,  but 
if  it  has  been  neglected  for  any  length  of  time,  it  assumes  a  malignant 
character,  scabs  and  blotches,  or  red  and  fiery  eruptions  appear,  and  the 
disease  rapidly  passes  into  manage. 
10* 


226  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

Mange. — If  the  foul  hide  already  described  had  been  properly  attended 
to,  and  the  remedies  necessary  for  its  removal  applied  in  sufficient  time, 
this  very  troublesome  disorder  would  not  have  supervened.  Mange 
is  supposed,  by  most  medical  men,  to  owe  its  existence  to  the  presence 
of  a  minute  insect,  called  ^^acarus  scabiei,^^  or  "  mange-fly,"  a  minute 
creature,  which  burrows  beneath  the  cuticle,  and  in  its  progress  through 
the  skin  occasions  much  irritation  and  annoyance.  Others,  again,  do 
not  conceive  the  affection  styled  mange  to  be  thus  produced,  but  refer 
it  to  a  diseased  state  of  the  blood,  which,  as  is  usually  the  case,  eventu- 
ally conveys  its  morbid  influences  to  the  superficial  tissues.  Much  has 
been,  and  still  more  might  be  said  on  both  sides  of  the  question,  but 
such  a  discussion  is  scarcely  suitable  to  the  pages  of  a  popular  work.  The 
symptoms  of  the  disease  are  sufficiently  well  known,  consisting  of  scabs, 
blotches,  and  sometimes  multitudes  of  minute  pustules,  on  different  parts 
of  the  body.  If  neglected,  these  symptoms  will  become  aggravated  ;  the 
disease  will  rapidly  spread  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  skin,  and  if 
suffered  to  proceed  upon  its  course,  unchecked,  it  will  ere  long  produce 
deep-seated  ulcers  and  malignant  sores,  until  the  whole  carcass  of  the 
poor  affected  animal  becomes  one  mass  of  corruption. 

The  Causes  of  Mange  have  been  differently  stated  ;  some  referring 
them  to  too  high,  and  others  to  too  low  a  diet.  The  cause  is  to  be 
looked  for  in  dirt,  accompanied  by  hot-feeding ;  hot-feeding  alone  would, 
perhaps  be  more  likely  to  produce  measles  than  mam/e,  but  dirt  would 
unquestionably  produce  the  latter  disease,  even  if  unaided  by  the  con- 
comitant error  of  hot-feeding. 

Hogs,  however  well  and  properly  kept,  will  occasionally  become 
affected  with  this,  as  well  as  with  other  disorders,  from  contagion.  Few 
diseases  are  more  easily  propagated  by  contact  than  mange.  The  in- 
troduction of  a  single  affected  pig  into  your  establishment  may,  in  one 
night,  cause  the  seizure  of  scores,  and  probably  furnish  you  with  a  three 
months'  hospital  experience.  Do  not,  therefore,  introduce  any  foul- 
skinned  pigs  into  your  piggery  ;  in  fact,  it  would  be  a  very  safe  proceeding 
to  wash  every  new  purchase  with  a  strong  solution  of  chloride  of  lime. 
This  substance  is  very  cheap,  and  a  little  trouble,  when  applied  as  a 
preventive,  is  surely  preferable  to  a  great  deal  of  both  trouble  and 
disappointment  when  you  are  compelled  to  resort  to  it  to  cure. 

If  a  hog  be  only  afflicted  with  a  mange  of  moderate  virulence,  and 
not  oi  very  long  standing,  the  best  mode  of  treatment  to  be  adopted  is: 

1.  Wash  the  animal  from  snout  to  tail,  leaving  no  portion  of  the  body 
uncleansed,  with  soft  soap  and  water. 

2.  Put  him  into  a  dry  and  clean  sty,  which  is  so  built  and  situated  as 
to  command  a  constant  supply  of  fresh  air,  without,  at  the  same  time, 
being  exposed  to  cold  or  draught ;  let  him  have  a  bed  of  clean,  fresh 
straw. 

3.  Reduce  his  food,  both  in  quality  and  in  quantity;  let  boiled  or 
steamed  roots,  with  buttermilk  or  dairy  wash,  supply  the  place  of  half- 
fermented  brewers'  grains,  house-wash,  or  any  other  description  of  feed- 
ing calculated  to  prove  of  a  heating  or  inflammatory  character.  It  is, 
of  course,  scarcely  necessary  to  add,  that  those  who  have  been  feeding 
their  swine  on  horse-flesh,  or  chandlers'  greaves,  cannot  be  surprised  at 


THE   HOG.  227 

the  occurrence  of  the  disease ;  let  them,  at  all  events,  desist  from  that 
rank  and  nasty  mode  of  feedinc^,  and  turn  to  such  as  has  been  indicated. 

4.  Lot  your  .patient  fast  for  five  or  six  hours,  and  then  give,  to  a  hoo- 
of  average  size — Epsom  salts,  two  ounces,  in  a  warm  bran  wash.  This 
quantity  is  to  be  increased  or  diminished  as  the  size  may  require. 
The  above  would  suffice  for  a  hog  of  160  lbs.  It  should  be  previously 
mixed  with  a  pint  of  warm  water.  This  should  be  added  to  about  half 
a  gallon  of  warm  bran  wash.     It  will  act  as  a  gentle  purgative. 

5.  Give  in  every  meal  afterward — of  flour  of  sulphur,  one  table- 
spoonful  ;  of  nitre,  as  much  as  will  cover  a  sixpence,  for  from  three  days 
to  a  week,  according  to  the  state  of  the  disease.  AVhen  you  perceive 
the  scabs  begin  to  heal,  the  pustules  to  retreat,  and  the  fiery  sores  to 
fade,  you  may  pronounce  your  patient  cured.  But  before  that  pleasing 
result  will  make  its  appearance,  you  will  perceive  an  apparent  increase  of 
violence  in  all  the  symptoms-^-the  last  effort  of  the  expiring  malady,  as 
it  were,  ere  it  finally  yields  to  your  care  and  skill. 

6.  There  are,  however,  some  very  obstinate  cases  of  mange  occasion- 
ally to  be  met  with,  which  will  nor  so  readily  be  subdued.  When  the 
above  mode  of  treatment  has  been  put  in  practice  for  fourteen  days, 
without  eff'ecting  a  cure,  prepare  the  following:  train  oil,  one  pint;  oil 
of  tar,  two  drachms;  spirits  of  turpentine,  two  drachms;  naphtha,  one 
drachm ;  with  flour  of  sulphur,  as  much  as  will  form  tlie  above  into  the 
consistency  of  a  thick  paste.  Rub  the  animal,  previously  washed,  with 
this  mixture — let  no  portion  of  the  hide  escape  you.  Keep  the  hog  dry 
and  warm  after  this  application,  and  suflE'er  it  to  remain  on  his  skin  three 
entire  days.  On  the  fourth  day,  wash  him  once  more  with  soft  soap, 
adding  a  small  quantity  of  soda  to  the  water.  Dry  the  animal  well 
afterward,  and  suff'er  him  to  remain  as  he  is,  having  again  changed  his 
bedding,  for  a  day  or  so  :  continue  the  sulphur  and  nitre  as  before.  I 
have  never  known  any  case  of  mange,  however  obstinate,  that  would 
not,  sooner  or  later,  give  way  before  this  mode  of  treatment. 

7.  Your  patient  being  convalescent,  whitewash  the  sty  ;  fumigate  it, 
by  placing  a  little  chloride  of  lime  in  a  cup,  or  other  vessel,  and  pouring 
a  little  vitriol  upon  it.  In  the  absence  of  vitriol,  however,  boiling  water 
will  answer  nearly  as  well. 

Finally,  all  mercurial  applications  are,  as  much  as  possible,  to  be 
avoided;  but,  above  every  thing,  avoid  the  use  of  ointments  composed 
of  hellebore,  corrosive  sublimate,  or  tobacco-water,  or,  in  short,  any 
'poisonous  ingredient  whatever ;  very  few  cures  have  ever  been  effected 
by  the  use  of  these  so-called  remedies,  but  very  many  deaths  have  re- 
sulted fi-om  their  adoption. 

Staggers,  caused  by  excess  of  blood  to  the  head ;  bleed  freely  from 
behind  the  ears,  and  purge. 

Crackings  will  sometimes  appear  on  the  skin  of  a  hog,  especially 
about  the  root  of  the  ears  and  tail,  and  at  the  flanks.  These  are  not 
at  all  to  be  confounded  with  mange,  never  resulting  from  any  thing  but 
exposure  to  extremes  of  temperature,  without  the  suflfering  animal  being 
able  to  avail  himself  of  such^protections  as,  in  a  state  of  nature,  instinct 
would  have  induced  him  to  adopt.  They  are  peculiarly  troublesome  in 
the  heats  of  summer,  if  the  hog  be  exposed  to  a  hot  sun  for  any  length 


228  DOMESTIC   A2s^IMALS. 

of  time,  without  the  advantage  of  a  marsh  or  pool  in  which  to  lave  his 
parched  limbs  and  half-scorched  carcass.  Anoint  the  cracked  parts 
twice  or  thrice  a  day  with  tar  and  lard  melted  up  together.  | 

Ratille,  or  Swelling  of  the  Spleen.— The  symptom  most  positively  in- 
dicative of  this  disease,  is  the  circumstance  of  the  affected  animal  lean- 
ing toward  one  side,  cringing  as  it  were,  from  internal  pain,  and  bending 
toward  the  ground.  The  cause  of  the  obstruction  on  which  the  disease 
depends  is  over-feeding,  permitting  the  hog's  indulging  its  appetite  to 
the  utmost  extent  that  gluttony  may  prompt  and  the  capacity  of  its 
stomach  admit  of;  a  very  short  perseverance  in  this  mode  of  manage- 
ment will  produce  this,  as  well  as  other  maladies  deriving  their  origin 
from  a  depraved  condition  of  the  secretions  and  obstruction  of  the  ex- 
cretory ducts. 

On  first  perceiving  the  complaint,  clear  out  the  alimentary  canal,  by 
means  of  a  strong  aperient.  If  you  think  you  can  manage  it,  you  may 
administer  this  forcibly,  by  having  the  mouth  kept  open  by  two  cords, 
that  attached  to  the  upper  jaw  being  thrown  across  a  joist,  and  drawn 
just  so  tight  as  to  compel  the  patiett  to  support  himself  on  the  extrem- 
ities of  his  fore-toes;  or  allow  the  animal  to  fast  for  from  four  to  five 
hours,  he  will  then  take  a  little  sweet  wash  or  broth,  and  in  it  you  may 
mingle  a  dose  of  Epsom  salts,  proportioned  to  his  bulk.  This  will 
generally  effect  the  desired  end  of  a  copious  evacuation,  and  the  action 
of  this  medicine  on  the  watery  secretions  will  further  relieve  the  existing 
diseased  state  of  the  spleen.  Many  recommend  bleeding  ;  and  if  the 
affection  have  continued  for  any  length  of  time,  it  should  be  resorted  to 
at  once;  when  the  disease  is,  however,  discovered  ere  it  has  attained  any 
considerable  head,  the  aperient  will  suflSce.  The  French  veterinarians 
recommend  the  expressed  juice  of  the  leaves  and  tops  of  wormwood  and 
liverwort  to  be  given,  half  a  pint  for  a  dose.  The  decoction  of  these 
plants  produced  by  boiling  them  in  soft  water  for  six  hours,  may  be 
given  in  doses  of  from  half  a  pint  to  a  pint  and  a  half,  according  to  the 
size,  age,  etc.,  of  the  patient. 

Scammony  and  rhubarb,  mixed  up  in  a  bran  mash,  or  with  Indian 
meal,  may  be  given  with  advantage  the  following  day,  or  equal  portions 
of  blue-pill  mass  and  compound  colocynth  pill,  formed  into  a  bolus  with 
butter,  and  the  animal,  having  been  kept  fasting  the  previous  night,  will 
probably  swallow  it;  if  he  will  not  do  so,  let  his  fast  continue  for  a 
couple  of  hours  longer.  Lower  the  animal's  diet,  and  keep  him  on  re- 
duced fare,  with  exercise,  and  if  you  can  manage  it,  grazing,  until  the 
malady  has  quite  passed  away ;  if  you  then  wish  to  fatten,  remember 
to  do  so  giadually ;  be  cautious  of  at  once  restoring  the  patient  to  full 
diet. 

Surfeit. — Another  name  for  indigestion ;  the  symptoms  are  such  as 
might  be  expected — panting,  loss  of  appetite,  swelling  of  the  region 
■about  the  stomach,  etc.,  and  frequently  throwing  up  the  contents  of  the 
stomach.  In  general,  this  affection  will  pass  away,  provided  it  is  only 
permitted  to  cure  itself,  and  all  food  carefully  kept  from  the  patient  for  a 
few  hours;  a  small  quantity  of  sweet  gwains,  with  a  little  bran-wash, 
may  then  be  given,  but  not  nearly  as  much  as  the  animal  would  wish  to 
take.     For  a  few  days  the  food  had  better  be  limited  in  quantity,  and 


A 


THE    HOG.  229 

of  a  washy,  liquid  nature.  You  may  then  resume  the  ordinary  food, 
only  observing  to  feed  regularly,  and  remove  the  fragments  remaining 
after  each  meal. 

Lethargy. — Symptoms,  torpor,  and  desire  to  sleep,  hanging  of  the  head, 
and  frequently  redness  of  the  eyes.  The  apparent  origin  of  this  disease 
is  the  same  as  the  last,  only  in  tliis  instance  acting  upon  a  hog  having  a 
natural  tendency  to  a  redundancy  of  blood.  Bleed  at  the  back  of  both 
the  ears  as  copiously  as  you  can,  and  if  you  cannot  obtain  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  blood  from  these  sources,  have  recourse  to  the  tail.  Admin- 
ister an  emetic,  of  which  a  decoct'on  of  chamomile  flowers  will  be  found 
the  safest ;  or  a  sufficient  dose  of  tartar  emetic,  which  will  be  far  more 
certain.  After  this,  reduce  for  a  few  days  the  amount  of  the  animal's 
food,  and  administer  a  small  portion  of  sulphur  and  nitre  in  each  morn- 
ing's meal. 

Cleavings,  or  Inllanimation  of  the  Lungs. — This  disease,  which  has  ac- 
quired its  name  from  the  principal  symptom  by  which  it  is  characterized, 
is  scarcely  to  be  regarded  as  curable.  •  If  indeed,  it  were  observed  in  its 
first  stage,  wlien  indicated  by  loss  of  appetite,  and  a  short,  hard  cough, 
it  might  run  some  chance  of  being  got  under  by  copious  bleeding,  and 
friction  with  stimulating  ointment  on  the  region  of  the  lungs,  minute 
and  frequent  doses  of  tartar  emetic  should  also  be  given  in  butter,  all 
food  of  a  stimulating  nature  carefully  avoided,  and  the  animal  kept  dry 
and  warm.  Under  these  circujnstances,  there  would  be  no  reason  ab- 
solutely to  despair  of  a  cure,  but  it  would  be  advisable  at  the  same  time, 
if  the  hog,  when  this  primary  stage  of  the  malady  was  discovered,  were 
not  in  very  poor  condition,  to  put  him  to  death.  If  once  the  heavings 
set  in,  it  may  be  calculated  with  confidence  that  the  formation  of  tubercles 
in  the  substance  of  tlie  lunos  has  begun,  and  when  these  are  once  formed, 
they  are  very  rarely  absoibod.  The  cause  of  this  disease  is  damp  lodg- 
ing, foul  air,  want  of  ventilation,  and  unwholesome  food.  It  is  difficult 
to  suggest  what  should  be  done  when  matters  have  reached  this  pass,  or 
what  remedies  would  prove  of  any  service.  It  is  now  too  late  in  most 
cases  to  resort  to  blood-letting,  and  the  hide  of  the  hog  is  so  tough 
that  it  is  not  easy  to  blister  it,  for  the  purpose  of  counter-irritation  ;  you 
may,  however,  try  the  following,  tliough  perhaps  the  knife  might  be  best, 
if  only  to  relieve  the  poor  sufferer,  and  provide  against  the  danger  of 
infection;  for  it  may  be  as  well  to  state  that,  once  tubercular  formation 
becomes  established,  the  disease  may  be  communicated  through  the 
medium  of  the  atmosphere,  the  infectious  influence  depending  upon  the 
noxious  particles  respired  from  the  lungs  of  the  diseased  animal.  Shave 
the  hair  away  from  the  chest,  and  beneath  each  fore-leg;  wet  the  part 
with  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  set  fire  to  it ;  you  will,  of  course,  have 
had  the  patient  \\ell  secured,  and  his  head  well  raised,  and  have  at  hand 
a  flannel  cloth,  with  whieli  to  extinguish  the  flame,  when  you  conceive 
it  has  burned  a  sufficient  time  to  produce  slight  blisters  ;  if  carried  too 
far,  a  sore  would  be  formed,  which  would  be  productive  of  no  good 
eff'ects,  and  cause  the  poor  animal  unnecessaiy  suff'ering.  Calomel  may 
also  be  used,  with  a  view  to  pron.ote  the  absoiption  of  the  tubercles, 
but  the  success  is  questionable. 

Diarrhcea,  or  Looseness. — The  symptoms,  of  course,  require  no  cora- 

47 


230  DOMESTIC  ANIMALS. 

ment,  as  they  constitute  the  disease.  Before  attempting  to  stop  the 
discharge — which,  if  permitted  to  continue  unchecked,  would  rapidly- 
prostrate  the  animal's  strength,  and  probably  terminate  fatally — ascertain 
the  quality  of  food  the  animal  has  recently  had.  In  a  majority  of  in- 
stances, you  will  find  this  to  be  the  origin  of  the  disease  ;  and  if  it  has 
been  perceived  in  its  incipient  stage,  a  mere  change  to  a  more  binding 
diet,  as  corn,  flour,  etc.,  will  suffice  for  a  cure;  if  you  have  reason  to 
apprehend  that  acidity  is  present,  produced  in  all  probability  by  the  hog 
having  fed  upon  coarse,  rank  grasses  in  swampy  places,  give  some  chalk 
in  the  food,  or  powdered  egg-shells,  with  about  half  a  draclim  of  pow- 
dered rhubarb ;  the  dose  of  course  varying  with  the  size  of  the  hog. 
In  the  acorn  season,  and  where  facilities  for  obtaining  tliem  exist,  they 
alone  will  be  found  quite  suflicient  to  effect  a  cure.  When  laboring 
under  this  complaint,  dry  lodging  is  indispensable;  and  diligence  will 
be  necessary  to  maintain  it  and  cleanliness. 

Quinsy,  or  Inflammatory  Affection  of  the  Glands  of  the  Throat.— Shave 
away  the  hair,  and  rub  with  tartar  emetic  ointment.  Stuping  with  very 
warm  water  is  also  useful.  When  external  suppuration  takes  place,  you 
may  regard  it  as  rather  a  favorable  symptom  than  otherwise.  In  this 
case,  wait  until  the  swellings  are  thoroughly  ripe ;  then,  with  a  sharp 
knife,  make  an  incision  through  the  entire  length,  press  out  the  matter, 
wash  with  warm  water,  and  afterward  dress  the  wound  with  any  resin- 
ous ointment,  or  yellow  soap  with  coarse  brown  sugar. 

Tumors,  of  Hard  Swellings,  which  make  their  appearance  on  several 
different  parts  of  the  animal's  body.  It  would  not  be  easy  to  state  the 
causes  which  give  rise  to  these  tumors,  for  they  vary  with  circumstances. 
They  are  not  formidable,  and  require  only  to  be  suffered  to  progress 
until  they  soften;  then  make  a  free  incision,  and  press  out  the  matter. 
Sulphur  and  nitre  should  be  given  in  the  food,  as  the  appearance  of 
these  swellings,  whatever  be  their  cause,  indicates  the  necessity  of  altera- 
tive medicines. 

Caturrh,  an  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membranes  of  the  nose,  etc., 
if  taken  in  time,  is  easily  cured  by  opening  medicine,  followed  up  by 
warm  bran-mash,  a  warm,  dry  sty,  and  abstinence  from  rich  grains  or 
stimulating  farinaceous  diet.  The  cause  has  probably  been  exposure  to 
drafts  of  air — see  to  it. 

The  instructions  given  comprise  all  that  the  amateur  will  ever  find  ne- 
cessary for  domestic  practice,  and  far  more  than  he  will  ever  find  occa- 
sion to  follow,  if  he  have  attended  to  cleanliness,  dry  lodging,  regularity 
of  feeding,  the  use  of  salt  in  the  food,  arid  the  addition  of  occasionally  a 
small  quantity  of  sulphur  and  nitre  to  the  morning's  meal. 

Medicines  Employed  in  tha  Treatment  of  Swine.— Few  medicines  are  re- 
quisite in  the  treatment  of  swine.  Of  these  the  chief  are  common  salt, 
Epsom  salts  (dose,  from  one-half  to  two  ounces)  ;  sulphur  (dose,  one- 
half  to  one  and  a  half  ounces) ;  useful  as  the  basis  of  ointments  for  cu- 
taneous diseases;  nitrate  of  potass  (dose,  one  scruple  to  one  drachm); 
ginger  (dose,  one  scruple  to  one  drachm) ;  croton-oil  (dose,  one  to  three 
drops) ;  castor-oil  (dose,  one-half  to  two  ounces) ;  jalap  (dose,  one 
scruple  to  one  half-drachm).  Besides  these,  we  may  mention  oil,  mer- 
curial ointment,  and  turpentine,  as  ingredients  in  ointments,  mixed  with 


THE   HOG.  231 

sulphur,  for  cutaneous  affections.  Turpentine,  it  may  be  observed,  is 
useful  in  cases  of  worms ;  it  may  be  given  in  doses  of  about  half  an 
ounce  or  more,  in  ijruel. 

SLAUGHTERING  AND  CURING.— The  Almighty  Creator,  when  he  had 
formed  man,  and  placed  him  upon  the  earth,  gave  him  power  of  life  and 
death  over  all  the  inferior  animals.  This  power  was,  however,  given  to 
him  to  be  used,  not  to  be  abused;  while  permitted  to  slay  for  food, 
clothing,  or  other  necessaries — nay,  luxuries  of  life — it  was  never  de- 
signed by  our  all-benevolent  as  well  as  omnipotent  Lord  that  this  power 
should  be  converted  into  a  medium  of  cruelty,  or  that  life  should  be 
taken  away  from  any  of  his  creatures  in  any  other  than  the  most  hu- 
mane manner  possible.  The  necessity  of  humanity  toward  animals  thus 
stands  as  not  only  a  high  moral  duty,  but  one  absolutely  enjoined  as  a 
divine  ordinance ;  it  is  also  a  part  and  parcel  of  all  that  is  noble  or  ex- 
cellent in  human  nature. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  this  poor  animal  is  insensible  to  pain. 
The  poor  hog  does  indeed  feel,  and  that  most  acutely ;  well  would  it 
be  for  him  that  he  did  not,  for  then  what  miseries  would  he  not  be 
spared  ! — he  would  not  then  care  whether  he  was  put  out  of  pain  at  (^ce, 
or  suffered  to  hang  up  by  the  hind-legs,  the  limbs  previously  dislocated 
at  the  hocks,  between  the  tendons  and  the  bone  of  which  has  been 
passed  the  hook  by  which  he  is  suspended.  Were  he  indeed  insensible 
to  pain,  it  would  of  course  be  a  matter  of  indifference  whether  or  not 
he  were  suffered  to  die  first,  or — as  soon  as  he  had  bled  a  sufHcient 
quantity — was,  still  living  and  breathing,  plunged  into  boiling  water,  in 
order  to  remove  his  hair;  or  then,  with  a  refinement  of  cruelty  that 
would  not  even  permit  of  his  being  put  out  of  his  misery  so  soon,  re- 
moved from  the  cauldron,  ere  life  or  feeling  had  yet  departed,  opened, 
and  disemboweled  alive. 

We  should  be  sorry  to  give  pain  to  the  feelings  of  any  of  our  readers, 
but  we  had  rather  hurt  their  feelings  than  leave  a  suffering,  a  tortured 
quadruped,  and  that,  too,  one  so  useful  to  us,  to  experience  such  an  un- 
grateful return,  in  the  shape  of  such  terribly  revolting  miseries.  We 
have  described  only  what  we  have  personally  witnessed,  and  we  trust 
that  what  we  have  said  may  lead  master-butchers  and  others  to  ascer- 
tain the  conduct  of  their  slaughterers,  and  the  manner  in  which  they 
perform  their  necessary  but  painful  duty. 

The  usual  mode  of  killing  a  hog  in  the  country  parts  of  England  is, 
or  used  lately  to  be,  by  fastening  a  rope  around  the  upper  jaw,  and 
throwing  it  across  a  joist  or  beam;  this  is  hauled  by  an  assistant  just 
sufficiently  tight  to  compel  the  animal  to  support  himself  upon  the 
•extremities  of  his  toes,  with  his  snout  elevated  in  the  air.  The  butcher 
then  kneels  in  front  of  him,  and  taking  a  sharp  and  pointed  knife,  first 
shaves  away  the  hair  from  a  small  portion  of  the  front  of  the  throat, 
then  gently  passing  the  sharp-pointed  steel  through  the  superficial  fat, 
gives  it  a  plunge  forward,  a  turn,  and  withdraws  his  weapon.  A  gush 
of  blood  follows,  which  is  usually  caught  in  proper  vessels,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  forming  black  puddings.  The  rope  is  somewhat  slackened — • 
the  victim  totters,  reels,  the  eye  glazes — his  screams  cease — befalls,  and 
life  would  speedily  become  extinct ;  but,  alas !  the  butcher  is  paid  by 


232  do:mestic  anoIxVls. 

the  jol),  he  is  in  a  hurry,  and  ere  the  breath  is  out  of  the  poor  brute's 
carcass — nay,  ere  he  ceases  to  struggle  or  moan — he  is  tumbled  into  the 
scalding  tub  ;  he  is  then  withdrawn  in  a  second,  placed  upon  a  table,  the 
hair  and  bristles  carefully  removed  by  scraping  with  a  knife ;  disem- 
boweling follows — and  it  is  well  if  the  poor  wretch  has  perished  before 
that  process  commenced. 

In  olden  times  it  would  appear  that  our  butchers  were  less  hasty,  or 
more  merciful.  All  the  skulls  of  hogs  were  broken  in  upon  the  frontal 
bones,  precisely  in  the  same  manner  as  are  now  the  skulls  of  oxen  and 
other  animals.  Were  the  hog  first  deprived  of  sensibility  by  compres- 
sion of  the  brain,  as  produced  by  a  violent  blow  upon  the  forehead,  he 
W'Ould  be  a  passive  victim  in  the  butcher's  hands,  who  could  not  only 
perform  all  the  remainder  of  the  process  with  more  humanity,  but — 
and  think  well  of  it,  such  of  you  as  might  probably  be  swayed  by  no 
other  consideration — with  more  dispatch  and  less  trouble. 

We  are  happy  in  being  able  to  add,  that  a  humane  custom  of  knock- 
ing the  hog  on  the  head  before  cutting  his  throat  is  rapidly  gaining 
ground,  and  that  no  respectable  butcher  will  allow  it  to  be  dispensed 
wirti.  In  the  country  parts  of  both  England  and  Ireland,  however,  the 
old  abuses  are  still  permitted  to  exist;  and  we  are  grieved  to  say  that 
everywhere,  with  a  very  few  honorable  exceptions,  the  barbarous  prac- 
tice of  plunging  the  hog  into  the  scald  while  yet  living,  is  still  sys- 
tematically and  designedly  adopted.  A  very  respectable  man  surprised 
us  the  other  day  by  deliberately  telling  us  that  "a  liog  will  no  way 
scald  so  well  as  when  the  life  is  in  him."  This  is,  however,  a  mistake. 
It  is  only  necessary  not  to  suffer  the  animal  to  become  cold  and  stiff. 
Readers — we  raise  our  voice  in  behalf  of  a  very  useful  and  most  cruelly- 
treated  animal — may  we  beg  of  all  to  unite  with  us  in  the  cause  of 
humanity,  and  then  we  shall  not  have  raised  our  voice  in  vain. 

And  now,  having  supposed  the  animal  killed  and  dressed,  let  us  pro- 
ceed to  inquire  into  the  most  approved  modes  by  which  its  flesh  may 
be  converted  into  bacon  and  ham.  The  hog  should  be  left  fasting  for 
full  twenty-four  hours  before  killed  ;  and  after  the  carcass  has  hung  all 
night,  it  should  be  laid  on  its  back  upon  a  strong  table.  The  head  should 
then  be  cut  off  close  by  the  ears,-  and  the  hinder  feet  so  far  below  the 
houghs  as  not  to  disfigure  the  hams,  and  leave  room  sufficient  to  hang 
them  up  by  ;  after  which  the  carcass  is  divided  into  equal  halves,  up 
the  middle  of  the  back-bone,  with  a  cleaving-knife,  and,  if  necessary,  a 
hand-mallet.  Then  cut  the  ham  from  the  side  by  the  second  joint  of 
the  back-bone,  which  will  appear  on  dividing  the  carcass,  and  dress  the 
ham  by  paring  a  little  oft  the  flank,  or  skinny  part,  so  as  to  shape  it 
with  a  half-round  point,  clearing  off  any  top  fat  that  may  appear.  The 
curer  will  next  cut  off  the  sharp  edge  along  the  back-bone  with  a  knife 
and  mallet,  and  slice  off  the  first  rib  next  the  shoulder,  where  he  will 
find  a  bloody  vein,  which  must  be  taken  out,  for,  if  left  in,  that  part  is 
apt  to  spoil.  The  corners  should  be  squared  off  when  the  ham  is  cut 
out. 

This  passage  is  quoted  because  it  describes  a  novel  mode  of  cutting 
bacon,  and  which  we  liave  not  as  yet  seen  pi-acticed.  The  ordinary 
practice  is  to   cut  out  the  spine  or  back-bone,  and,  in  some  English 


THE    HOG.  233 

counties,  to  take  out  the  ribs  also.     It  is  only  in  porkers  that  the  back- 
bone is  thus  divided. 

The  most  approved  mode  of  saving  bacon,  as  practiced  by  a  majority 
of  those  extensive  curers  who  have  kindly  favored  us  with  the  necessary 
details  of  this  portion  of  our  subject,  is  as  follows:  if  the  swine  you 
dcsio-ii  killing  have  been  a  recent  purchase,  and  have  been  driven  from" 
a  distance,  so  as  to  have  become  winded  or  jaded,  it  is  right  that  they 
should  be  kept  up  for  a  week,  or  perhaps  more,  until  the  effects  of  the 
journey  have  been  entirely  removed,  and  the  animals  restored  to  their 
original  tranquillity  and  primeness  of  condition ;  during  this  interval 
tliey  should  be  fed  upon  meal  and  water.  A  difference  of  opinion  ex- 
ists, as  to  whether  this  food  should  be  given  in  a  raw  state  or  boiled.  We 
have  taken  some  pains  to  ascertain  the  truth,  and  have  no  hesitation  in 
pronouncing  in  favor  of  the  latter;  at  the  same  time,  however,  the  mess 
should  be  given  in  a  perfectly  cold  state,  and  not  of  too  thick  consist- 
ence. Some  recommend  that  a  small  dose  of  nitre  should  be  given 
daily  in  the  food  for  a  fortnight  previous  to  killing;  others  pronounce 
this  to  be  unnecessary ;  but  all  unite  in  recommending  a  very  consider- 
able reduction  in  the  animal's  food  for  two  or  even  three  days  bt^fore 
killing,  and  a  total  deprivation  of  food  for  at  least  the  last  twelve  hours 
of  life. 

In  the  country  districts  of  Ireland,  the  hog  is  usually  secured  by  the 
hind-leg  to  a  post  or  ring,  the  head  is  fastened  to  another;  the  animal 
is  thus  securely  strapped  down  upon  a  sloping  slab  or  table,  and  the 
head  is  severed  from  the  body  by  means  of  a  sharp  knife.  I  am  in- 
formed that  trhe  bacon  of  a  hog  thus  killed  is  more  easily  saved,  and  is 
superior  in  flavor  and  color. 

The  ordinary  mode  of  killing  a  hog  is,  we  are  most  happy  to  say, 
gradually  approximating  to  such  as  humanity  would  dictate.  It  is  thus: 
a  flat  stage  or  table,  inclining  downward  in  one  direction,  is  prepared ; 
the  pig  receives  a  powerful  blow  with  a  mallet  upon  the  forehead,  which 
eliectually  deprives  him  of  sensation  ;  he  is  then  thrown  upon  the 
stage,  and  a  knife  plunged  into  the  chest,  or  rather  into  that  spot  where 
the  chest  meets  the  neck.  The  blood  flows  freely,  and  is  received  into 
vessels  placed  for  the  purpose.  A  large  tub  or  other  vessel  has  been, 
previously  got  ready,  which  is  now  filled  with  boiling  water.  The  car 
cass  of  the  hog  is  plunged  into  this,  and  the  hair  is  then  removed  with 
the  edge  of  a  knife.  The  hair  is  more  easily  removed  if  the  hog  be 
scalded  ere  he  stiffens  or  becomes  quite  cold,  and  hence  some  butchers 
cruelly  conceive  it  advisable  to  scald  him  while  yet  there  is  some  life  in 
him.  The  animal  is  now  hung  up,  opened,  and  the  entrails  removed ; 
the  head,  feet,  etc.,  are  cut  off,  and  the  carcass  divided,  cutting  up  at 
each  side  of  the  spine.  A  strong  knife  and  mallet  are  necessary  for  this 
purpose,  and  w  ill  be  found  to  answer  better  than  a  saw. 

HOW  TO  CURE  BACON  AND  HAMS.— One  and  a  half  pounds  of  salt  and 
one  ounce  of  saltpetre  are  enough  to  salt  fourteen  pounds  of  meat,  or 
two  hundred  weight  of  meat  will  require  twenty-four  pounds  of  salt. 

The  following  is  Mr.  Rowlandson's  plan  : — "Having  cut  up  a  well-fed 
hog,  which  absorbs  much  less  salt  than  an  ill-fed  animal,  and  runs  very 
little  risk  of  being  over-fed,  salt,  and  saltpetre,  in  the  proportions  de- 


23tt  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

scribed,  must  be  sprinkled  over  the  flitches,  etc.,  and  then  they  must 
be  laid  one  over  the  other  in  a  slate  trough,  or  a  wooden  trough  lined 
with  lead,  to  the  number  of  half  a  dozen ;  in  the  course  of  twenty- 
four  hours,  or  forty-eight  hours,  according  as  the  salt  is  converted  into 
brine  (and  this  will  depend  on  the  weather — in  frosty  weather  the  meat 
will  not  take  the  salt,  and  in  moist  weather  it  is  apt  to  spoil),  the  sides 
are  removed,  rubbed,  replaced  in  inverse  order,  the  top  at  the  bottom, 
with  a  little  fresh  salt  sprinkled  between  each  course,  and  the  brine 
thrown  over  the  whole.  In  favorable  weather  for  curing,  once  turning 
and  replacing  will  be  found  enough,  and  will  not  occupy  more  than  a 
week. 

Bacon  is  cured  in  very  different  ways.  For  domestic  use,  it  is  usually 
laid  upon  a  table,  and  salt,  with  a  little  nitre  added,  well  rubbed  in,  first 
on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other,  either  with  the  bare  hand  or  the 
salting-glove.  Some  straw  is  then  placed  upon  tlie  floor  of  an  out-house, 
a  flitch  laid  thereon,  with  the  rind  downward — straw  laid  above  this, 
then  another  flitch,  and  so  on ;  above  the  whole  is  placed  a  board,  and, 
heavy  stones  or  weights  above  all.  In  three  weeks  or  a  month  the  meat 
is  suflficiently  salted,  and  is  hung  up  on  hooks  in  the  kitchen  rafters. 
The  general  practice  of  burning  wood  and  turf  in  Irish  kitchens,  imparts 
a  sweetness  to  the  bacon  thus  saved  that  is  not  to  be  met  with  in  any 
which  you  can  purchase. 

Another  method  is  as  follows  : — prepare  a  pickle,  by  boiling  common 
salt  and  nitre  in  water  ;  mix,  for  a  single  hog,  of  tolerable  size,  one  pound 
of  coarse  brown  sugar,  with  half  a  pound  of  nitre  ;  rub  this  well  in  with 
the  salting-glove,  then  put  the  meat  into  the  pickle,  and  let  it  lie  in  this 
for  two  days ;  afterward  take  it  out  of  the  pickle,  and  rub  it  with  salt 
alone,  then  put  it  back  into  the  pickle. 

For  a  mild  cure — form  siveet  pickle^  by  boiling  molasses  with  salt  and 
water  ;  rub  the  meat  with  sugar  and  nitre — add  a  small  portion  of  strong 
pickle  to  the  meat — put  the  meat  into  this,  and  let  it  lie  in  it  for  about 
three  weeks.  If  there  be  any  spare  room  in  the  cask,  fill  up  with 
molasses — eight  pounds  of  salt;  one  pound  of  nitre,  and  six  pints  of 
molasses  will  about  sufl5ce  for  each  hundred  weight  of  meat;  and  will 
take  about  five  gallons  of  water. 

In  about  three  weeks — less  or  more  time  being  required  according  to 
size — take  the  meat  out  of  pickle,  and  hang  it  in  the  drying-house.  While 
in  the  drying-house,  the  flitches  should  be  hung,  neck  downward.  You 
may  cut  out  the  ham,  and  trim  the  flitch  according  to  fancy — nearly 
every  county  in  England  has  in  this  respect  a  fashion  of  its  own. 

You  then  remove  your  hams  and  bacon  to  the  smoking-house  ;  they 
should  not  be  suff"ered  to  touch  each  other  ;  with  this  precaution  you  may 
hang  them  as  close  as  you  please.  Smoke-houses  are  of  every  dimension, 
but  the  smallest  answer  as  well  as  the  most  extensive.  Before  suspend- 
iug  the  meat  in  the  smoke-house,  it  should  be  previously  well  rubbed 
over  with  bran.  The  fire  is  made  of  saw-dust,  which  burns  with  a  low 
smouldering  glow,  giving  out  far  more  smoke  than  if  actually  flaming. 

In  the  process  of  smoking,  your  meat  will  lose  from  about  fifteen  to 
twenty  pounds  per  hundred  weight — a  fact  necessary  to  be  borne  in  mind. 

Sometimes  the  hogs  are  killed  before  they  arrive  at  full  size,  and 


THE   HOG.  235 

their  hair  removed  by  singeing ;  the  bacon  and  hams  of  these  are  said  to 
possess  peculiar  delicacy  of  flavor. 

The  best  saw-dust  for  smoking  hams  or  bacon  is  that  made  from 
oak,  and  it  should  be  thoroughly  dry.  The  saw-dust  of  common  deal 
imparts  a  flavor  of  a  disagreeable  character,  not  unlike  that  of  red 
herrings. 

Westphalian  Hams. — The  genuine  Westphalian  bacon  is  particularly 
good,  but  all  sold  under  that  name  is  not  genuine ;  spurious  West- 
phalian hams  are  manufactured  to  a  considerable  extent.  The  process 
of  imitation  is  not  difhcnlt,  and  none  but  one  of  the  trade  can  detect  the 
imposture.  The  fine  quality  of  Westphalian  bacon  depends  on  several 
causes :  the  healthy  and  semi-wild  life  the  swine  are  permitted  to  enjoy 
— their  relationship  to  the  wild  boar — they  are  not  fattened  to  the 
fullest  extent  previous  to  killing.  A  large  proportion  of  sugar  and 
juniper-berries  are  used  in  curing — the  proportion  being  usually  one  and 
a  half  pounds  of  sugar  to  three  of  salt,  and  two  ounces  of  nitre.  The 
smoke  is  also  applied  in  a  cold  state.  This  is,  perhaps,  the  principal 
secret.  The  hams  are  all  hung  at  the  top  of  a  very  lofty  building,  and 
by  the  time  the  smoke  reaches  them  it  is  perfectly  cold. 

The  ham  of  the  Westphalian  hog  closely  resembles  that  of  the  com- 
mon old  Irish  breed  ;  and  the  hams  of  that  animal,  when  cured  as  has 
been  described,  could  not  be  distinguished  from  those  of  Westphalia 
by  the  nicest  judge. 

Limerick. — The  hams  cured  in  Limerick  have  long  enjoyed  considera- 
ble celebrity,  and  are  supposed  to  be  superior  to  any  others — those  of 
Westphalia  and  Hampshire  alone  excepted.  Their  excellence  appears 
chiefly  to  depend  upon  the  sparing  use  of  salt,  and  the  substitution  for 
it,  to  a  great  extent,  of  coarse  sugar,  with  judicious  smoking.  Some  of 
the  Limerick  smoking-rooms  are  upward  of  thirty  feet  in  height. 

Hampshire. — The  Hampshire  bacon  is  in  greater  esteem  than  even 
the  Westphalian — a  circumstance  attributable  to  the  superior  excellence 
of  the  New-Forest  swine  to  those  of  that  country,  while  they  share  equally 
with  them  the  privilege  of  a  forest  life  and  acorns.  The  Hampshire  curers 
smoke  with  saw-dust.  In  both  this  county  and  in  Berkshire,  singeing 
is  adopted  more  generally  than  scalding,  and  this  process  is  considered 
superior  to  scalding,  the  latter  being  supposed  to  soften  the  rind  and 
render  the  fat  less  firm. 

The  Wiltshire  bacon  is  of  peculiarly  delicious  quality,  but  the  cause 
is  obvious,  and  is  not  to  be  referred  to  any  of  the  details  of  the  curing  pro- 
cess.   This  bacon  is  prepared  from  dairy-fed  pork — this  is  the  true  secret. 

In  some  counties  the  pig  is  skinned  prior  to  curing.  Some  amount 
of  additional  profit  is  of  course  derivable  from  this  practice,  but  the 
bacon  is  inferior,  being  liable  to  become  rusty,  as  well  as  to  waste  in  the 
boiling. 

Hams  and  flitches  should  always  be  hung  up  in  a  dry  place,  indeed  it 
will  be  found  useful  to  sew  up  the  former  in  pieces  of  canvas  or  sack- 
ing, as  is  practiced  with  the  Westphalian. 

It  is  difficult  to  save  bacon  in  summer  time,  or  in  warm  climates, 
but  a  machine  has  recently  been  invented,  for  which  a  patent  has  been 
obtained,  which  renders  the  saving  of  meat  under  the  most  adverse  cir- 


236  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

cumstances  perfectly  easy.  The  machine  acts  as  a  force-pump  or  syringe. 
Its  extremity  is  inserted  into  the  meat,  and  the  handle  worked  ;  the 
brine,  wliich  must  be  very  strong,  is  thnsfoi-ced  through  the  grain  of  the 
meat,  and  it  is  effectually  impregnated  with  it,  and  well  cured  long  ere 
it  could  turn  :  there  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  this  instrument  is,  under 
the  circumstances  described,  eminently  useful — but  it  is  no  less  cer- 
tain that  meat  so  cured  is  not  equal  to  that  saved  under  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances and  in  the  ordinary  manner;  the  grain  of  the  meat  is  too 
much  loosened  by  the  use  of  the  machine,  and  the  texture  is  thus  de-» 
teriorated ;  it  should  therefore  only  be  used  when  necessity  requires, 
and  never  by  preference^  where  the  ordinary  process  can  be  adopted. 

To  extract  the  superabundant  salt  from  your  meat,  prior  to  use,  has 
long  been  a  desideratum.  The  steeping  it  in  water  to  which  carbonate 
of  soda  has  been  added,  is  found  useful  ;  so  is  the  addition  of  the  same 
substance,  or  of  lime,  to  the  water  in  which  it  is  boiled;  so  is  changing 
the  water,  after  the  meat  has  been  about  half-boiled.  Sailors  find  wash- 
ing the  meat  in  sea-water  very  efficacious,  but  I  have  made  the  discovery 
that  this  object  can  be  attained  to  a  far  fuller  extent  by  a  very  simple 
chemical  process. 

Put  your  meat  to  steep  in  tepid  water,  and  after  it  has  lain  in  it 
for  some  hours,  add  a  small  quantity  of  sulphuric  acid.  In  three  or  four 
hours  take  it  out,  and  wash  it  two  or  three  times  in  water;  to  the  third 
water  add  a  small  portion  of  carbonate  of  soda.  Take  your  meat  out, 
wash  it  again,  and  boil  it  for  dinner.  You  will  find  the  salt  nearly,  if 
not  wholly  discharged  ;  but  you  need  not  be  surpi-ised  should  the  color 
of  the  meat  be  somewhat  darkened — the  deterioration  does  not  extend 
farther;  the  flavor  remains  the  same  as  when  first  corned,  and  the 
article  becomes  as  wholesome  as  fresh  meat.  It  is  possible  that  this 
simple  process  maybe  found  useful  in  long  voyages,  for  a  long-continued 
use  of  salted  animal  food,  without  a  free  use  of  vegetables,  is  found  to 
contribute  to  the  production  of  many  diseases. 

The  following  communication,  coming  from  a  curer  by  profession, 
will  be  found  at  once  interesting  and  useful  : 

"The  hog  is  usually  kept  fasting  for  twenty-four  hours  previous  to 
being  killed.  He  is  then  brought  to  the  slaughter-house,  and  dispatched 
in  the  following  manner :  the  butcher  takes  a  mall  (a  hammer  with  a  long 
handle,  like  those  used  for  breaking  stones  on  a  road),  and  with  it  strikes 
the  hog  on  the  forehead ;  if  he  be  an  expert  hand,  a  single  blow  will 
suffice  to  knock  the  hog  down  and  render  him  quite  senseless.  A  knife 
is  then  taken,  and  the  butcher  sticks  the  animal  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  throat,  just  between  the  fore-legs.  A  boiler  or  tub,  full  of  very  hot 
or  boiling  water,  is  then  prepared,  in  which  the  hog  is  immersed  until 
the  hair  becomes  so  loose  that  it  can  be  scraped  off  with  a  knife  quite 
clean;  where  there  is  no  convenience  of  this  kind,  the  same  effect  may 
be  produced  by  pouring  boiling  w.ater  over  the  hog.  The  hog  is  then 
hang  up  by  the  hind-legs,  cut  up  the  middle,  and  the  entrails  taken  out; 
after  this,  the  carcass  is  left  there  for  about  twelve  hours,  to  cool  and 
become  firm,  when  it  is  fit  for  boning  or  cutting  up.  Sometimes,  instead 
of  scalding,  the  hog  is  singed  by  fire — burned  straw  is  generally  used 
for  this  purpose;  and  this  is  called  'singed  pork.' 


I 


THE  HOG.  237 

"The  following  is  the  mode  of  boning  or  cutting:  the  pig  is  placed 
on  a  strong  table  or  bench ;  the  head  is  then  cut  off  close  to  the  ears ; 
the  hog  is  then  opened  down  the  back,  a  cleaver  or  saw  is  used  for  the 
purpose,  and  both  back-bone  and  hip-bones  are  taken  out,  except  in  one 
or  two  places  yet  to  be  spoken  of,  where  a  different  system  is  pursued. 
The  hind-feet  are  then  cut  off,  so  as  to  leave  a  shank  to  the  ham.  The 
fore-legs  are  then  cut  round  at  the  hough,  the  flesh  scraped  upward  off 
the  bone,  and  off  the  shoulder-blade,  which  is  taken  out  quite  bare, 
under  the  side.  The  saw  is  then  run  along  the  ribs,  so  as  to  crack  them  ; 
they  then  lie  quite  flat.  The  hog  is  then  divided  straight  up  the  back, 
and  the  sides  are  ready  for  salting,  the  ham  still  remaining  in. 

"  When  the  sides  are  ready  for  salting,  they  are  well  rubbed  on  the 
rind  side,  and  the  space  from  which  the  shoulder-blade  was  taken  out 
is  filled  with  salt.  The  sides  are  then  laid  singly  upon  a  flagged  floor, 
and  salt  is  shaken  over  them.  In  a  day,  or  two  days  if  the  weather 
be  cold,  they  must  again  be  salted  in  the  same  manner;  but  now  two 
sides  may  be  ]3ut  together,  and  powdered  saltpetre  shaken  over  each 
side,  in  the  proportion  of  about  two  ounces  to  each  side,  if  of  average 
bacon  size.  After  three  or  four  days,  the  sides  are  to  be  again  changed, 
the  shanks  of  the  hams  rubbed,  the  salt  stirred  on,  a  little  fresh  salt 
shaken  over  them,  and  five  or  six  sides  may  now  be  placed  over  each 
other.  The  sides  may  then  be  left  thus  for  a  week,  when  they  may  be 
piled  one  over  the  other  to  the  number  of  ten  or  twenty  sides,  if  you 
have  killed  so  many  hogs.  Leave  them  so  for  above  three  weeks,  until 
they  get  firm  ;  they  may  then  be  considered  saved,  and  will  keep  so  for 
six  or  eight  months,  or  according  to  pleasure. 

"  When  required  for  use  or  for  market,  the  sides  are  taken  out  of  the 
salt,  well  swept  and  cleaned — the  ham  taken  out,  hung  up,  and  dried 
with  turf  smoke ;  if  a  brown  color  be  desired,  a  little  saw-dust  of  hard 
wood  may  be  thrown  over  the  turf.  If  hung  up  in  a  kitchen  where 
turf  is  burned,  and  suffered  to  remain,  not  too  near  the  fire,  the  same 
effect  will  be  produced ;  and  if  the  bacon  have  been  well  saved  in  salt, 
it  will  be  excellent. 

"  Ihe  Belfast  and  Limerick  methods  of  cutting  differ  from  what  I 
have  described,  inasmuch  as  the  hip-bones  are  left  in,  and  the  hams  are 
cut  out,  while  the  hog  is  fresh,  and  saved  separately.  In  some  cases, 
also,  the  ribs  are  taken  out  of  the  sides,  and,  in  Belfast,  the  shoulder- 
blade  is  taken  out  over  the  side. 

"Both  the  Belfast  and  Limerick  hams  are  cured  in  the  same  mild 
manner;  they  are,  as  I  have  stated,  cut  out  of  the  hog  when  fresh, 
cured  separately,  and  only  left  a  suflicient  time  to  be  saved,  and  no 
more.  They  are  not  suflered  to  become  too  salty,  a  fault  sometinies 
perceptible  in  the  Wicklow  hams.  The  Limerick  and  Belfast  curers 
also  make  up  different  other  portions  of  the  hog  separately,  as  long 
sides,  middles,  and  rolls,  for  the  English  market. 

"  Sometimes  the  ribs  are  taken  out,  and  sometimes  not,  according  to 
the  market  for  which  they  are  intended. 

"Limerick  and  Belfast  hams  are  cured  in  the  following  manner: — 
They  are  cut  fresh  from  the  pig,  with  the  hip-bones  left  in  them,  and 
are  placed  on  a  flagged  floor,  the  front  of  the  second  ham  resting  upon 


238  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

the  shank  of  the  first,  and  so  until  all  arc  placed  ;  they  are  then 
sprinkled  with  strong  pickle  from  a  watering  pot,  and  a  small  quantity 
of  salt  is  shaken  over  them.  Next  day,  the  hams  are  taken  up,  well 
rubbed  with  salt,  and  laid  down  as  before,  when  saltpetre  is  shaken  over 
them  in  quantities  proportionate  to  their  size ;  they  are  left  so  for  two 
days,  and  then  taken  up  and  rubbed  as  before,  when  they  are  laid  down 
again,  according  to  the  space  they  have  to  fill — from  three  to  six  hams 
in  height,  with  layers  of  salt  between.  After  six  days,  the  hams  are 
reversed  in  the  piles,  that  is,  those  that  were  packed  on  the  top  are  put 
at  the  bottom.  They  then  remain  for  six  days  longer  in  the  pile,  when 
they  are  considered  cured.  They  are  then  taken  up,  and  washed,  and 
hung  up  to  dry  in  the  air.  When  they  are  to  be  smoked,  they  should 
be  placed  in  a  house  made  for  that  purpose,  and  smoked — in  Belfast, 
with  wheaten  straw  and  saw-dust,  in  Limerick  with  peat  or  turf. 

"The  English  method  of  cutting  up  and  curing  is  similar  to  that 
practiced  in  Belfast  and  Limerick,  with  the  difference  that,  with  the 
exception  of  Hampshire  and  I  believe  one  other  county,  they  never 
smoke  their  bacon. 

"  We  have,  this  season,  had  imported  a  great  quantity  of  hams  and 
other  bacon  from  Cincinnati  and  Baltimore,  in  America.  They  are  cut 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  Limerick,  and  are  in  much  esteem.  The 
cured  shoulders  of  the  hog  have  also  been  imported — cut  straight 
across,  with  the  blade  in,  and  the  shank  left  attached.  We  have  also 
received  middles,  and  quantities  of  pork,  in  barrels,  which  is  merely  the 
hog  cut  up  in  pieces,  and  pickled. 

"  I  have  reason  to  know  that  there  are  at  the  present  time  numbers 
of  curers  emigrating  from  our  best  curing  districts  to  America,  and  we 
may  accordingly  expect,  ere  long,  to  find  our  American  hams  surpass- 
ing, owing  to  the  quality  of  the  hogs  they  will  have  to  operate  upon, 
even  our  long-famed  Limerick  hams." 


LIVE-STOCK NUMBER    TO    BE    KEPT,  ETC. 

The  animals  necessary  for  the  stocking  and  cultivation  of  a  farm,  and 
those  which  are  kept  on  it  for  profit,  or  for  the  sake  of  their  dung,  are 
called  the  live-stock  of  the  farm,  in  contra-distinction  to  the  dead-stock, 
which  consists  of  the  implements  of  husbandry  and  the  produce  stored 
up  for  use. 

The  live-stock  on  a  farm  must  vary  according  to  circumstances.  The 
number  of  horses  or  oxen  kept  for  the  cultivation  of  the  land  and  other 
farming  operations  should  be  exactly  proportioned  to  the  work  to  be 
done.  If  they  are  too  few,  none  of  the  operations  will  be  performed  in 
their  proper  time,  and  the  crops  will  suffer  in  consequence.  If  there 
are  too  many,  the  surplus  beyond  what  is  strictly  required  is  maintain- 
ed out  of  the  profits  of  the  farm.  To  have  the  exact  number  of  animals 
which  will  give  the  greatest  profit  is  one  of  the  most  important  prob- 
lems which  a  farmer  has  to  solve :  what  may  be  very  profitable  in  one 
case  may  be  the  reverse  in  another;  and,  as  a  general  maxim,  it  may 
be  laid  down,  that  the  fewer  mouths  he  has  to  feed,  unless  they  pioduce 
an  evident  profit,  the  less  loss  he  i«  likely  to  incur.     But  this  rule  ad- 


LIVE  STOCK.  239 

mits  of  many  exceptions.  It  is  of  c^reat  importance,  in  tating  a  farm, 
to  calculate  the  extent  of  the  arable  land,  so  that  it  can  be  properly 
cultivated  by  a  certain  number  of  pairs  of  horses  or  oxen.  It  is  an  old 
measure  of  land  to  divide  it  into  so  many  plows,  that  is,  so  many  por- 
tions which  can  be  tilled  with  one  plow  each.  When  there  are  sev- 
eral of  these,  it  is  useful  to  have  an  odd  horse  over  the  usual  number 
required  for  two  or  three  plows,  to  relieve  the  others  occasionally. 
The  work  is  thus  done  more  regularly  and  with  greater  ease.  Where 
there  are  two  plows  with  two  horses  each,  a  fifth  horse  should  be 
kept,  and  so  in  proportion  for  a  greater  number.  The  odd  horse  will 
always  be  found  extremely  useful,  if  not  indispensable,  and  the  expense 
of  his  keep  will  be  amply  repaid  by  the  regularity  and  ease  with  which 
the  whole  work  of  the  farm  will  be  done,  and  the  relief  which  occasional 
rest  will  give  to  the  other  horses. 

The  other  part  of  the  live-stock  kept  on  a  farm  must'depend  on  va- 
rious circumstances.  Where  there  is  good  grazing  land,  the  profit  on 
the  improvement  of  the  live-stock,  or  their  produce,  is  evident  and  easily 
ascertained.  But  where  animals  are  kept  upon  artificial  food  or  fatted 
in  stalls,  it  is  often  a  difficult  question  to  answer,  whether  there  is  a 
profit  on  their  keep  or  not.  In  most  cases  the  manure  which  their  dung 
and  litter  aff"ord  is  the  chief  object  for  which  they  are  kept.  If  manure 
could  be  obtained  in  sufficient  quantities  to  recruit  the  land,  at  a  rea- 
sonable price,  it  might  often  be  more  advantageous  to  sell  off  all  the 
hay  and  straw  of  a  farm,  and  to  keep  only  the  cattle  necessary  to  till 
the  ground  or  supply  the  farmer's  family.  But  this  can  only  be  the 
case  in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  large  towns.  In  the  country  at 
a  greater  distance  no  manure  can  be  purchased  ;  it  must  consequently 
be  produced  on  the  farm;  and  for  this  purpose  live-stock  must  be  kept, 
even  at  a  loss.  The  management  and  feeding  of  live-stock  is  therefore 
an  important  part  of  husbandry.  The  object  of  the  farmer  is  princi- 
pally to  obtain  manure  for  his  land,  and  if  he  can  do  this,  and  at  tlie 
same  time  gain  something  on  the  stock  by  which  it  is  obtained,  he 
greatly  increases  his  profits.  Hence  much  more  skill  has  been  dis- 
played in  the  selection  of  profitable  stock  than  in  the  improvement  of 
tillage.  Some  men  have  made  great  profits  by  improving  the  breed  of 
cattle  and  sheep,  by  selecting  the  animals  which  will  fatten  most  readi- 
ly, and  by  feeding  them  economically.  It  requires  much  experience  and 
nice  calculations  to  ascertain  what  stock  is  most  profitable  on  different 
kinds  of  land  and  in  various  situations.  Unless  very  minute  accounts 
be  kept,  the  result  can  never  be  exactly  known.  It  is  not  always  the 
beast  which  brings  most  money  in  the  market  that  has  been  most  profit- 
able ;  and  many  an  animal  which  has  been  praised  and  admired  has 
caused  a  heavy  loss  to  the  feeder.  Unless  a  man  breeds  the  animals 
which  are  to  be  fatted,  he  must  frequently  buy  and  sell;  and  an  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  the  qualities  of  live-stock  and  their  value,  both  lean 
and  fat,  is  indispensable.  However  honest  may  be  the  salesman  he 
may  employ,  he  cannot  expect  him  to  feel  the  same  interest  in  a  pur- 
chase or  sale,  for  which  he  is  paid  his  commission,  as  the  person  whose 
profit  or  loss  depends  on  a  judicious  selection  and  a  good  bargain. 
Every  farmer  therefore  should  endeavor  to  acquire  a  thorough  knowl- 


240  DOMESTIC   AJS^IMALS. 

edge  of  stock,  and  carefully  attend  all  markets  within  his  reach  to  watch 

the  fluctuation  in  the  prices.  It  will  generally  be  found  that  the  prin- 
cipal profit  in  feeding  stock  is  the  manure,  and  to  this  the  greatest 
attention  should  be  directed.  A  little  management  will  often  greatly  in- 
crease both  the  quantity  and  quality  of  this  indispensable  substance,  and 
make  all  the  difference  between  a  loss  and  a  profit  in  the  keeping  of  stock. 


THE  "CREAM-POT"  BREED  CF  CATTLE.— This  is  a  valuable  dairy-breed 
and  promises  to  exceed  all  other  breeds  in  this  country,  in  the  quantity  and 
richness  of  the  milk  it  furnishes,  and  the  extraordinary  amount  of  butter 
which  it  yields.  This  breed  originated  in  New  England,  and  was  pro- 
duced by  Col.  Jaques,  of  Ten  Hills  Farm,  Somerville,  Mass.,  by  crossing 
the  improved  short-horns  with  the  most  valuable  native  breed.  Col. 
Jaques  thus  speaks  of  the  origin  of  this  breed: — "Hearing  of  cows 
that  produce  seventeen  pounds  of  butter  each  per  week,  the  inquiry 
arose,  why  not  produce  a  breed  of  such  cows  that  may  be  depended 
on  ?  This  I  attempted,  and  have  accomplished.  I  have  made  from 
one  of  my  Cream-Pot  cows  nine  pounds  of  butter  in  three  days  on 
grass  feed  only. 

"The  bull  Coelebs,  an  imported  thorough-bred  Durham,  and  Flora,  a 
heifer  of  the  same  breed,  and  imported,  and  a  native  cow,  whose  pedi- 
gree is  entirely  unknown,  comprise  the  elements  of  the  Cream-Pot  breed, 
of  cattle.  The  native  cow  was  bought  in  consequence  of  her  superior 
quality  as  a  milker,  giving  eighteen  quarts  a  day,  and  averaging  about 
fifteen.  In  the  month  of  April,  the  cream  of  two  days'  milk  produced 
two  and  three-fourths  pounds  of  butter,  made  of  two  and  one-sixteenth 
quarts  of  cream,  and  required  but  two  minutes'  churning.  Thus  much 
for  the  mother  of  the  Cream-Pots. 

"  I  have  bred  my  Cream-Pots  with  red  or  mahogany-colored  hair  and 
teats,  and  gold-dust  in  the  ears,  yellow  noses  and  skin,  the  latter  silky 
and  elastic  to  the  touch,  being  like  a  fourteen-dollar  cloth.  My  Cream- 
Pots  are  full  in  the  body,  chops  deep  in  the  flank,  not  quite  as  straight 
in  the  belly,  nor  as  full  in  the  twisty  nor  quite  as  thick  in  the  thigh  as 
the  Durhams;  but  in  other  respects  like  them.  They  excel  in  affording 
a  great  quantity  of  rich  cream,  capable  of  being  converted  into  butter 
in  a  short  time,  with  little  labor,  and  with  a  very  small  proportion  of 
buttermilk,  the  cream  producing  more  than  eighty  per  cent,  of  butter. 
I  have  changed  the  cream  to  butter  not  unfrequently  in  one  minute,  and 
it  has  been  done  in  forty  seconds." 

Henry  Colman  thus  refers  to  Col.  Jaques's  stock: — "  Mr.  Jaques  is 
entitled  to  great  credit  for  his  care  and  judicious  selection  in  continuing 
and  improving  his  stock.  I  have  repeatedly  seen  the  cream  from  his 
cows,  and  its  yellowness  and  consistency  are  remarkable,  and  in  company 
with  several  gentlemen  of  the  Legislature,  I  saw  a  portion  of  it  con- 
verted to  butter  with  a  spoon  in  one  minute.  The  color  of  Mr.  Jaques's 
stock  is  a  deep  red,  a  favorite  color  in  New  England ;  they  are  well  formed 
and  thrifty  on  common  feed ;  and  if  they  continue  to  display  the  extra- 
ordinary properties  by  which  theyare  now  so  disting'iished,  they  promise 


LIVE  WEIGHT    OF    CATTLE.  241 

to  prove  the  most  valuable  race  of  animals  ever  known  among  us  for 
dairy  purposes,  and  equal  to  any  of  which  we  have  any  information." 


TO  ESTIMATE  THE  LIVE  WEIGHT  OF  CATTLE,  etc.— Drovers  and  butch- 
ers by  long  experience  become  very  expert  in  estimating,  by  simple 
inspection,  the  weight  of  live  cattle  ;  and  in  making  purchases,  they  thus 
have  a  decided  advantage  over  the  less  experienced  seller.  Hence,  the 
importance  to  the  latter  of  some  means  by  which  he  can  know^  and  not 
guess  at  the  weight  of  his  live  animals. 

The  following  rules,  the  result  of  careful  experiments,  and  which  we 
take  from  The  Valley  Farmer^  will  enable  any  one  to  ascertain  the 
weight  of  live  animals  with  a  close  approach  to  accuracy  : — take  a 
string,  put  it  around  the  breast,  stand  square  just  behind  the  shoulder- 
blade,  measure  on  a  rule  the  feet  and  inches  the  animal  is  in  circum- 
ference;  this  is  called  the  girth;  then,  with  the  string,  measure  from 
the  bone  of  the  tail  which  plumbs  the  line  with  the  hinder  part  of  the 
buttock ;  direct  the  line  along  the  back  to  the  fore  part  of  the  shoulder- 
blade  ;  take  the  dimensions  on  the  foot-rule  as  before,  which  is  the 
length  ;  and  work  the  figures  in  the  following  manner: — girth  of  the 
animal,  say  six  feet  four  inches,  length  five  feet  three  inches,  which  mul- 
tiplied together,  makes  thirty-one  square  superficial  feet,  and  that  mul- 
tiplied by  twenty-three,  the  number  of  pounds  allowed  to  each  superficial 
foot  of  cattle  measuring  less  than  seven  and  more  than  five  feet  in  girth, 
makes  seven  hundred  and  thirteen  pounds.  When  the  animal  measures 
less  then  nine  and  more  than  seven  feet  in  girth,  thirty-one  is  the  number 
of  pounds  to  each  superficial  foot.  Again,  suppose  a  pig  or  any  small 
beast  should  measure  two  feet  in  girth  and  two  along  the  back,  which 
multiplied  together  makes  four  square  feet,  that  multiplied  by  eleven, 
the  number  of  pounds  allowed  to  each  square  foot  of  cattle  measuring 
less  than  three  feet  in  girth,  makes  forty-four  pounds.  Again,  suppose 
a  calf,  a  sheep,  etc,  should  measure  four  feet  six  inches  in  girth,  and  three 
feet  nine  inches  in  length,  which  multiplied  together  make  fifteen  and  a 
quarter  square  feet ;  that  multiplied  by  sixteen,  the  number  of  pounds 
allowed  to  cattle  measuring  less  than  five  feet  and  more  than  three  in 
girth,  makes  two  hundred  and  sixty-five  pounds.  The  dimensions  of 
girth  and  length  of  horned  cattle,  sheep,  calves,  and  hogs,  may  be  ex- 
actly taken  in  this  way,  as  it  is  all  that  is  necessary  for  any  computation, 
or  any  valuation  of  stock,  and  will  answer  exactly  to  the  four  quarters, 
sinking  ofi"al. 
11 


DOMESTIC  POULTRY 


BREEDS  AID  TREATMENT 


IK 


HEALTH   A^T>    DISEASE. 


THE    DOMINIQUE    COCK. 


POULTKY.  245 


DOMESTIC    P©fJt.TRY. 

"  How  grateful  'tis  to  wake 
While  raves  the  midnight  storm,  and  hear  the  sound 
Of  busy  grinders  at  the  well-tilled  rack ; 
Or  flapping  wing  or  crow  of  chanticleer, 
Long  ere  the  lingering  morn  ;  or  bouncing  flails 
Tliat  tell  the  dawn  is  near  I     Pleasant  the  path 
M^  By  sunny  garden  wall,  when  all  the  fields 

Are  cliill  and  comfortless  ;  or  barn-yard  snug. 
Where  flocking  birds,  of  various  plume  and  chirp 
Discordant,  cluster  on  the  leaning  stack 
From  whence  the  thresher  draws  the  rustling  sheaves." 

VIEW  OF  THE  DIPORTANCE  OP  THE  SUBJECT.— Poultry-keeping  is 
an  amusement  in  which  every  body  may  indulge.  The  space  needed  is 
not  great,  the  cost  of  food  for  a  few  head  insignificant,  and  the  luxury 
of  fresh  eggs  or  home-fatted  chickens  or  ducks  not  to  be  despised.  la 
a  large  collection  of  poultry  may  be  read  the  geography  and  progress 
of  the  commerce  of  the  world.  The  peacock  represents  India;  the 
golden  pheasant  and  a  tribe  of  ducks,  China;  the  turkey,  pride  of  the 
yard  and  the  table,  America ;  the  black  swan,  rival  of  the  snowy  mon- 
arch of  the  lakes,  reminds  us  of  Australian  discoveries;  while  Canada 
and  Egypt  have  each  their  goose.  The  large  fat  white  ducks — models 
of  what  a  duck  should  be — are  English,  while  the  shining  green  black 
ones  come  from  Buenos  Ay  res.  And  when  we  turn  to  the  fowl 
varieties,  Spain  and  Hamburg,  Poland  and  Cochin  China,  Friesland 
and  Bantam,  Java  and  Negroland,  beside  Surry,  Sussex,  Kent,  Suffolk, 
and  Lancashire,  have  each  a  cock  to  crow  for  them. 

VARIETIES  OF  THE  DOMESTIC  FOWL.— l.  The  Malay  Fowl,  from 
its  size  and  strength,  is  admirably  adapted  for  crossing  with  the  Dorking 
and  other  native  breeds.  2.  The  Java  Fowl,  nearly  resembling,  and. 
in  the  opinion  of  some,  identical  with,  the  Malay.  3.  The  Cochin 
China  breed,  equal  in  most  respects,  and  more  prolific  than  the  Malay. 
4.  The  Spanish  Fowl,  perhaps  the  best  breed  known  for  laying.  5. 
The  Polish  Fowl,  a  noble  and  very  beautiful  bird,  and  an  excellent 
layer.  6.  The  Spangled  Varieties,  including  the  whole  class  of  Gold 
and  Silver  Spangled,  known  in  different  countries  as  Spangled  Ham- 
burgs,  Every-day  Dutch,  Bolton  Bays,  Bolton  Greys,  Chittyprats, 
Creoles,  Corals,  etc.  7.  The  Speckled  and  White  Dorking,  the  most 
delicate  of  all  the  varieties  for  the  table.  8.  The  Sussex  Fowl,  most 
probably  a  variety  of  the  Dorking.  9.  The  Game  Fowl,  graceful  of 
form  and  plumage,  with  undying  courage,  and  excellent  for  crossing  with 
eommon  varieties.  10.  The  Pheasant  Fowl,  erroneously  said  to 
originate  in  a  cross  with  the  Cock  Pheasant.  H.  The  Bantams,  more 
remarkable  for  their  beauty  than  any  other  quality. 

The  Malay  Fowl,  called  also  the  Chittagong. — This  is  a  large  and  heavy 
fowl ;  it  is  a  close  and  hard-feathered  bird,  from  which  circumstance  it 

48 


246  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

often  weighs  more  than  it  appears  to  do.  It  stands  tall,  with  very  up- 
right gait'.  The  legs  are  long,  the  thighs  are  remarkably  long,  strong, 
and  firm;  and  the  tarsi  of  moderate  length,  round,  stont,  and  of  a 
yellow  color.  The  tail  is  long  and  drooping,  the  head  snake-shaped, 
i.  e.,  with  a  great  fullness  over  the  eye,  and  of  a  flattened  form  above. 
The  thick  comb,  scarcely  rising  from  the  head,  has  been  compared  to 
half  a  strawberry  ;  so  that  the  natural  form  of  comb  a  little  resembles 
that  of  the  game-fowl  when  dubbed.  The  neck  is  rope-like  and  close- 
feathered,  and  the  bird  is  almost  without  wattle. 

The  Malay  should  have  a  pearl  eye,  and  a  hawk  bill  free  from  stain. 

The  pullets  commence  laynig  early,  and  are  often  good  winter  layers. 
The  ego-  is  of  medium  size,  with  a  tinted  shell.  The  chickens  when 
lialf-grown,  are  gaunt,  ungainly  looking  young  things,  and,  like  many 
choice  kinds,  tledge  slowly. 

Height  is  a  great  point  in  a  Malay.  Old  fanciers  had  a  curious  mode 
of  comparing  notes  upon  this  point.  They  used  to  hold  the  bird  out  at 
full  stietch,  and  measure  the  length, from  beak  to  toe,  on  a  table.  Some 
of  old  Mr.  Castang's  breed  are  mentioned  as  having  measured  thirty-eight 
and  a  half  inches.  The  cocks  are  said  to  have  weighed  from  nine  and  a  half 
pounds  to  eleven  pounds,  and  the  hens  from  eight  pounds  to  ten  pounds. 

I  have  known  a  Spanish  cock  and  a  Malay  hen  produce  excellent 
fowls  for  the  table,  being  large,  fleshy,  and  well-flavored. 

The  Malays  are  inveterate  fighters  ;  and  this  is  the  quality  for  which 
they  are  chiefly  prized  in  their  native  country,  where  cock-fighting  is 
carried  to  the  extent  of  excessive  gambling.  Men  and  boys  may  be 
frequently  met,  each  carrying  his  favorite  bird  under  his  arm,  ready  to 
set  to  work  the  moment  the  opportunity  shall  cccur. 

The  Cochin  China. — The  history  of  the  Cochin-China  fowl  might  be  the 
history  of  the  poultry  mania,  an  excitement  which  rivaled  manias  of 
greater  importance  in  its  strength.  They  were  introduced  some  time 
about  the  year  1845,  and  soon  became  known  and  popular.  Their  large 
size,  in  the  eyes  of  most  persons,  their  handsome  appearance,  the  bright- 
ness of  their  colors,  the  number  of  their  eggs,  and  their  gentle,  quiet 
disposition,  soon  made  their  way  ;  they  were  much  liked,  and  were 
bought  eagerly  at  from  three  to  six  dollars  each ;  at  that  time  a 
very  high  price  for  a  fowl.  Cochin  China  hens  are  excellent  layers  of 
medium-sized  eggs,  which  they  produce  in  great  abundance  at  the  season 
when  they  are  of  greatest  value.  The  chickens,  if  bred  from  mature 
birds,  are  exceedingly  hardy  ;  and  the  fowls  are  of  quiet,  domestic  habits, 
and  easily  kept  within  bounds.  A  first-class  fowl  should  be  compact, 
large,  and  square-built;  full  in  the  chest,  deep  in  the  keel,  and  broad 
across  the  loins  and  hind  quarters.  The  best  in  form  are  as  compactly 
made  as  Dorkings.  The  head  is  delicately  shaped,  with  a  short  bill,  and 
the  comb  fine  in  texture,  rather  small,  perfectly  single,  straight,  and 
equally  serrated;  the  wings  small  and  closely  folded  in,  the  tail  short, 
and  carried  rather  horizontally  ;  the  legs  very  short,  yellow  (according 
to  rule)  and  heavily  feathered.  This  fowl  has,  however,  lost  its  earlier 
popularity,  and  is  now  generally  discarded  by  good  poulterers,  being 
lound  a  voracious  feeder,  and  yielding  a  comparatively  small  return  for 
the  food  consun]ed. 


rOULTRT. 


24:7 


COCHIN  CHINA,   OR   SHANGHAI   FOAVL. 

Spanish  Fowls. — The  chief  drawbacks  in  rearing  Spanish  are  the  del- 
icacy of  the  chickens  while  young,  and  the  length  of  time  which  elapses 
before  the  youngsters  show  their  quality,  unless  they  are  bred  from 
much  better  fowls  than  most  persons  can  command;  in  which  case  the 
chickens  develop  their  prize  properties  earlier.  The  combs  of  the  hens 
shrink  very  much  when  they  are  not  hiying,  and  during  the  moulting 
season.  In  winter  they  should  be  protected  from  severe  cold,  which  is 
very  apt  to  seize  the  comb  and  w^attles  of  the  cocks. 

The  hens  lay  larger  eggs  than  any  other  kind  of  fowl  we  have  :  they 
are  non-sitters.  The  chickens  hatch  out  black,  with  a  little  mixture  of 
dull  white,  or  yellow.  They  fledge  slowly,  and  are  very  delicate  while 
young. 

The  Minorca. — This  is  a  plump-bodied,  useful  fowl,  which  would  be 
a  Spanish,  if  it  could  persuade  its  parents  to  bequeath  it  the  white  face 
which  breeders  and  judges  think  so  much  of.  The  plumage  is  black, 
with  metallic  luster,  and  the  hens  lay  fine  large  eggs.  I  believe  they  sit 
more  than  the  Spanish. 

The  White  Spanish. — The  white-faced  white  Spanish  I  believe  to  be 
merely  a  sport  of  the  white-faced  black  Spanish.  The  red-faced  white 
Spanish,  or  white  Andalusian,  is  really  a  Spanish  fowl.  They  are  good 
layers,  and  very  precocious.     The  stock  was  brought  from  Spain. 

Andalusian  Fowls. — The  birds  which  have  been  shown  under  this 
name  are  in  color  the  kind  of  gray  called  blue,  which  is  sometimes  laced 
and  shaded  with  black.  Mr.  Taylor,  late  of  Shepherd's  Bush,  imported 
the  original  stock  from  Spain.  They  are  good-looking  fowls  with  large 
pendent  scarlet  combs  like  the  Spanish,  and  are  said  to  be  good  layers. 


248 


DOMl^STIC    ANIMALS. 


Polailds. — With  these  fowls  there  has  been  much  difference  of  opinion 
respecting  the  applicability  of  the  name.  Some,  with  apparent  reason, 
would  divide  them  into  three  families;  the  St.  Ja^gro,  the  Turkish,  and 


THE      POLISH     FOWL. 


the  ITambnrc:,  or  muffed  kind.  We  rank  as  Polands  all  fowls  with  their 
cliief  distinfruishing  characteristic — a  full,  large,  round,  compact  tuft  on 
the  head.  It  is  a  class  of  fowls,  the  beauty  of  which,  united  to  theii 
useful  qualities,  must  make  general  favorites.  All  the  sub-varieties  are 
of  medium  size,  neat  compact  form,  with  full  plump  bodies,  full  breast, 
lead-colored  legs,  and  ample  tails.  The  kinds  more  or  less  known  are 
very  numerous :  they  are  all  good  layers. 


rUULTKY. 


249 


The  White-crested  Black  Polcind  is  a  fowl  of  a  deep  velvety  black, 
with  a  large  white  tuft  on  the  head.  They  should  be  Avithout  comb  ; 
but  many  have  a  little  comb  in  the  form  of  two  small  points  before  the 
tuft.  The  tuft,  to  be  perfect,  should  be  entirely  white;  but  it  is  rare  to 
meet  with  one  without  a  slight  bordering  of  black,  or  partly  black 
feathers  round  the  front. 

The  Golden  and  Silver  Polands  are,  the  one  a  gold  color,  the  other 
w  hite  spangled  with  black :  the  tuft,  as  in  the  black,  should  be  large 
and  compact.  The  more  completely  the  color  in  the  tuft  can  partake 
of  the  character  of  feather  in  the  rest  of  the  bird,  the  better.  Some 
persons  admit  white  in  the  tuft  of  the  golden  Poland,  but  I  cannot  help 
thinking  the  mixture  a  great  fault.  Mr.  Baily  (well  known  as  one  of 
the  best  judges)  would  like  to  see  the  feathers  of  the  tuft  laced.  This 
is  very  difficult  of  attainment.  The  marking  of  the  bird  is  a  black 
spangle  on  the  golden  or  silver  ground-color.  The  wings  are  barred, 
and  the  best  judges  admit  lacing  on  the  wing-coverts. 

There  are  several  other  varieties  of  tufted  fowls  or  Polands,  and  many 
intelligent  breeders  have  devoted  great  attention  to  them. 

The  black  and  the  white  are  both  beautiful,  with  full  tufts,  muffs,  and 
clean  legs. 


THE   GOLDEN   SPAKGLED     HAMBX-RG   FOWL. 

HamLlirg  Fowls. — The  Hamburg  is  a  medium-sized  fowl,  \\\t\\  a  brisk 
and  spirited  bearing,  a  brilliantly  red  double  comb,  ending  in  a  spike  at 
the  back,  taper  blue  legs,  ample  tail,  exact  markings,  and  a  well  de- 
veloped white  deaf  ear.  They  are  profitable  fowls  to  keep,  being  excellent 
layers,  and  not  large  eaters.  They  are  what  pigeon-fanciers  would  call 
good  field-birds,  delighting  to  wander  far  abroad,  and  to  seek  provender 
for  themselves.     The  varieties  are. 

The  Spangled  Hamburg,  or  pheasant-fowls,  the  marking  of  which 
takes  the  form  of  a  spot  upon  each  feather.  They  are  divided  into  gold 
and  silver,  according  to  the  ground-color  of  the  plumao-e. 

The  Penciled  Harnhiirg,  in  which  the  marking  is  more  minute. 
When  seen  at  a  distance,  the  hens  have  the  appearance  of  being  mi- 
nutely speckled  in  plumage,  and  over  this  a  pure  white  hackle  falls  and 
contrasts  very  prettily.  When  one  feather  is  taken  separately,  the 
raarking  is  veiv  exact  and  beautiful,  being  a  regular  penciling;  i.  e.,  the 
11* 


250 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


feather  is  divided  by  bars  evenly  arranged,  of  alternate  white  and  gold 
color.  Like  the  spangled,  they  are  divided  into  golden  and  silver  for  the 
same  reason — the  ground-color  of  the  plumage.  In  all  these  birds,  exact- 
ness of  the  markings  is  a  great  point. 

The  Black  Haniburrj. — This  is  a  very  beautiful  variety,  being  of  a 
brilliant  black,  with  metallic  luster.  The  brilliancy  of  the  plumage, 
contrasted  with  the  coral-red  of  the  spiked  comb  and  the  white  ear- 
lobes,  renders  this  fowl  so  attractive  in  appearance,  that  we  cannot  help 
wondering  that  it  is  not  more  general,  particularly  as,  like  all  the  Ham- 
burgs,  it  is  an  excellent  layer. 


TUE  DOEKING   FOAVL. 


The  Dorking  Fowl. — The  Dorking  would  appear  to  owe  its  name  to  its 
having  been  chiefly  bred  in  a  town  of  Surry,  of  the  same  appellation. 
That  the  peculiarity  of  five  toes,  or,  in  other  w^oi-'ls,  of  two  hind  toes 
instead  of  one,  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  distinctive  character  of  the  breed, 
is  by  some  writers  questioned,  and  by  others  wholly  denied.  For  my 
part,  I  should  say,  that  whenever  this  characteristic  is  absent,  a  cross 
has  been  at  work. 

I  do  not,  however,  mean  to  assert  that  this  possession  of  two  hind 
toes  instead  of  one,  has  never  occurred  in  any  other  family  of  fowl  ex- 
cept those  bred  at  Dorking,  in  Surry,  for  Aristotle  has  mentioned  the 
existence  of  a  similar  peculiarity  among  certain  fowl  in  Greece,  and  both 
Columella  and  Pliny  assert  the  existence  of  such  in  their  time  in  Italy, 
so  also  does  Aldrovand;  and  these  authors  lived  hundreds  of  years  ago; 
and,  oddly  enough,  these  breeds  were  remarkable,  as  are  our  own  Dork- 
ing, for  being  good  layers  and  good  sitters. 

The  color  of  the  Dorking  is  usually  pure  white,  or  spotted  or  span- 
gled with  black;  these  colors  sometimes  merge  into  a  gray  or  grizzle. 
The  hens  weigh  from  seven  to  nine  pounds ;  stand  low  on  their  legs  ; 


POULTRY.  251 

are  round,  plump,  and  short  in  the  body;  wide  on  the  breast,  with 
abundance  of  white  juicy  flesh.  The  hens  are  generally  good  layers, 
and  their  eggs,  though  smaller  than  the  egg  of  the  Spanish  and  Polish 
breeds,  are  of  good  size  and  well  flavored.  These  birds  have  been  long 
prized,  and  it  is  now  many  years  since  their  supei-iority  over  our  ordi- 
nary domestic  varieties  was  originally  discovered  and  appreciated;  they 
were  first  noticed,  and  the  variety  adopted,  by  the  Cumberland  breed- 
ers, whence  they  were  soon  brought  into  Lancashire  and  Westmoreland, 
and  gradually  spread  over  all  England.  Whether,  however,  from  inju- 
dicious treatment,  or  imperfect  feeding,  or  change  of  climate,  or  from 
whatever  cause,  it  is  certain  that,  when  met  with  far  from  their  native 
place,  they  appear  greatly  to  have  degenerated  from  their  original 
superiority  of  character.  In  this,  and  all  other  varieties  of  fowl,  fresh 
blood  should  be  introduced  from  time  to  time,  or  the  breed  degenerates. 

The  best  breed  of  the  gallinaceous  fowls  is  the  produce  of  the  Dork- 
ing (Surry)  cock  and  the  common  dunghill  fowl.  This  cross  is  larger 
and  plumper,  and  more  hardy  than  the  pure  Dorking,  without  losing 
delicacy  of  flavor  or  whiteness  of  flesh. 

The  characteristics  of  the  pure  Dorking  are,  that  it  is*  white-feathered, 
short-legged,  and  an  excellent  layer.  The  peculiarity  of  this  established 
variety,  which  has  frequently  five  claws  perfectly  articulated  (with  some- 
times a  sixth  springing  laterally  from  the  fifth,  but  always  imperfect),  is 
well  known.  The  crossing  with  the  Sussex  fowl  has  however  greatly 
diminished  the  monstrosity  in  the  Surry  pentadactylus  vaiiety.  But 
though  the  true  Dorking,  which  is  white,  is  much  esteemed,  that  color 
is  rare,  and  prized  for  the  ornament  of  the  poultry-yard;  speckled  colors 
are  most  generally  seen  with  the  higgler. 

The  Sussex. — This  is  but  an  improved  variety  of  Dorking,  similar  in 
shape  and  general  character,  usually  of  a  brown  color,  but  possessing 
the  advantage  of  wanting  the  fifth  toe  ;  we  say  advantage,  for  the 
Dorking  fowl  frequently  becomes  diseased  in  the  feet,  the  cocks  espe- 
cially, in  consequence  of  breaking  the  supplementary  toe  in  fighting. 

The  Game  Fowl. — The  game  fowl  is  one  of  the  most  gracefully-formed 
and  most  beautifully  colored  of  our  domestic  breeds  of  poultry ;  in  its 
form  and  aspect,  and  in  the  extraordinary  courage  which  characterizes 
its  natural  disposition,  it  exhibits  all  that  either  the  naturalist  or  the 
sportsman  recognizes  as  the  beau  ideal  of  high  blood,  embodying,  in 
short,  all  the  most  indubitable  characteristics  of  gallinaceous  aristoc- 
racy. 

We  do  not  possess  any  very  satisfactory  record  of  the  original  coun- 
try of  the  game  fowl ;  but  we  are  disposed  to  cede  that  honor  to  India, 
the  natives  of  which  country  have  always  been  remarkable  for  their 
love  of  cock-fighting ;  and  we  also  know  that  there  still  exists  in  India 
an  original  variety  of  game  cock,  very  similar  to  our  own,  but  inferior 
in  point  of  size.  As  to  the  date  or  occasion  of  their  first  introduction 
into  the  British  islands,  we  know  nothing  certain  ;  but  it  is  probable 
that  we  owe  it  to  the  invasion  of  Julius  Caisar,  the  Romans  having  been 
very  fond  of  the  sport  of  cock  fighting. 

It  is  not  only  for  its  pugnacious  qualities  that  the  game  fowl  is  to  be 
noticed ;  it  yields  to  no  breed,  nay,  perhaps  is  superior  to  most,  in  tho 


252  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


THE  GAME  COCK  AND  HEK. 


whiteness  and  sapidity  of  its  flesh ;  the  hens  are  excellent  layers,  and 
the  eggs,  though  of  moderate  size  only,  are  remarkable  for  the  delicacy 
of  their  flavor.  The  game  cock  is  very  attentive  to  his  female  train, 
and  ever  ready  to  do  baitle  in  their  defense ;  but  not  unfrequently  he 
becomes  savage  and  dangerous.  A  blow  with  his  spnr  is  no  trifle. 
Children  have  been  severely  injured,  and  cases  have  been  mentioned  in 
which  they  have  been  killed.  From  these  causes,  and  from  the  fact 
that  the  young  broods,  as  soon  as  fairly  feathered,  begin  to  fight  among 
themselves  with  desperate  determination,  blinding  each  other,  stripping 
the  skin  from  each  other's  heads  and  necks,  and  killing  each  other  on 
the  spot,  many  persons  object  to  keep  this  breed  ;  and  it  must  be  con- 
fessed that  it  occasions  great  trouble ;  it  is  not  always  convenient  or  pos- 
sible to  separate  the  young  broods ;  and  as  the  young  cocks  and  hens 
fio-ht  indiscriminately,  it  not  unfrequently  happens  that  one-half  is  de- 
stroyed in  the  mUee^  while  most  of  the  survivors  are  so  mangled  as  to 
render  it  necessary  to  put  them  out  of  pain,  to  the  mortification  of  the 
farmer  or  breeder  of  fowls  for  profit ;  for  not  only  are  the  broods  lost, 
but  the  time  also. 

Of  all  breeds,  the  game  breed  is  the  most  beautiful,  whether  we  look 
to  contour  or  coloring;  the  game  cock  carries  himself  proudly,  and  yet 
gracefully;  his  port  and  bearing  proclaim  his  fiery  spirit  and  undaunt- 
ed mettle,  which  endure  even  to  his  last  breath;  for  while  prostrate  and 
mortally  wounded,  he  will  answer  the  insulting  crow  of  his  victorious 
rival,  and  make  a  last  effort  to  revenge  himself  before  the  spark  of  life 
is  extinct.  No  wonder  that  the  gallant  cock  should  have  been  chosen 
as  the  emblem  of  courage. 

Bantams. — The  classes  of  Bantams  are  gold-laced,  silver-laced,  white, 
black,  and -one  for  "any  other  variety;"  from  which  last  may  especially 
be  selected  the  exceedingly  beautiful  game  Bantams,  and  the  once  popu- 
lar, but  now  rare,  booted  sub-variety.  Diminutive  size  and  bold  carriage 
are  important  points  in  all  Bantams  ;  in  other  respects,  the  diff'erent 
kinds  difi'er  as  much  as  distinct  varieties  of  fowls  can  do.  The  Ban- 
tams are  peculiarly  fancy  fowls;  they  have  been  accused  of  not  being 
a  useful  kind,  as  of  course  there  is  little  to  eat  in  a  fowl  which,  when 
full  grown,  should  weigh,  the  cock  about  a  pound,  the  hen  less,  the  eggs 


POULTRY. 


253 


TUK  SEABHIGIIT   BANTAM. 


■VVHITK    15ANTAM    COCK   AND    HEN. 


being  small  in  proportion.  But  how  many  linndreds  of  amateurs  there 
are  whose  opportunities  give  them  no  room  for  full-sized  fowls,  but  who, 
delighting  in  living  things,  can  indulge  their  fancy  and  beguile  many 
-V?^S^^--.^fr'v^^-     _  hours  which  would  otherwise 

~  prove  weary  ones,  by  keeping 

a  few  Bantams.  Iheir  small 
eggs  are  delicacies  which  would 
tempt  almost  any  invalid. 

The  r/old  and  silver-laced^  or 
Scabright  Bantam^  is  perhaps 
the  most  popular  kind  of  all 
The  size  sliould  be  quite  dimin- 
utive, and  the  carriage  saucy. 

The  hooted  Bantam^  of  which 
the  most  beautiful  we  have  seen 
have  been  pure  white,  are  com- 
pletely feathered  on  the  legs — 
iiot'feathcred  down  one  side  only,  like  the  Cochin  China. 

Game  Bantams   are  exact  miniature  representatives  of  game  fowls, 

black-breasted  reds,  duck-wings, 
and  other  colors.  An  exact  duck- 
wing  game  Bantam  is  the  most 
beautiful  little  creature  one  can 
imao-ine. 

THE  DOMESTIC  TURKEY.— The 
domestic  turkey  can  scarcely  be 
said  to  be  divided,  like  the  com- 
mon fowl,  into  distinct  breeds,  al- 
though there  is,  indeed,  consider- 
able variation  in  color,  and  also  in 
size.  The  finest  and  strongest  tur- 
keys are  said  to  be  those  of  a 
bronzed  black,  resc^nbling  as  closely  as  possible  the  original  stock;  they 


SL.VCK    BA 


CU(  K    AND    HEN. 


254  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

are  reared  the  most  easily,  are  large,  and  fatten  rapidly.  Some  turkeys 
are  of  a  coppery  tint,  others  of  a  delicate  fawn-color,  others  particol- 
ored, gray,  and  white,  and  some  few  of  a  pure  snowy  white.  All  these 
are  considered  inferior  to  the  black;  their  color  indicates  something 
like  degeneracy  of  constitution,  and  they  are  seldom  very  large-sized. 

In  the  choice  of  store-birds  some  care  is  requisite;  the  stock  should 
be  of  a  good  sort;  the  black  Norfolk  race  is  an  excellent  sort,  probably 
produced  originally  by  a  cross  with  the  wild  breed  of  America. 

Early  in  spring,  generally  speaking,  the  female  commences  laying; 
she  indicates  her  intention  by  a  peculiar  cry,  by  strutting  about  with  an 
air  of  self  satisfaction,  and  often  by  prying  into  out-of-the-way  places. 
She  should  now  be  closely  watched,  and  some  management  is  required 
to  induce  her  to  lay  in  the  place  desired. 

The  nest  should  be  prepared  of  straw  and  dried  leaves ;  it  should  be 
secluded ;  and  to  excite  her  to  adopt  it,  an  og(r^  or  a  piece  of  chalk  cut 
into  the  form  of  an  egg,  should  be  placed  in  it.  When  her  uneasiness 
to  lay  is  evident,  and  symptoms  prove  that  she  is  ready,  she  should  be 
confined  in  the  shed,  barn,  or  place  in  which  her  nest  (in  a  large  wicker 
basket)  is  prepared,  and  let  out  as  soon  as  the  egg  is  laid.  It  is  gen- 
erally in  the  morning  that  the  turkey-hen  lays,  and  mostly  every  other 
day,  though  some  lay  daily,  until  the  number  of  eggs  amounts  to  fiom 
fifteen  to  twenty.  As  the  eggs  are  laid,  it  is  as  well  to  remove  them 
(leaving  the  decoy  egg  or  piece  of  chalk)  until  the  number  is  complete ; 
as  they  are  liable  to  be  broken,  or  to  be  sucked  by  rats  or  weasels. 
They  may  then  be  restored  to  her  for  incubation.  The  turkey-hen  is  a 
steady  sitter,  and  in  this  respect  resembles  the  wild  bird ;  nothing  will 
induce  her  to  leave  her  nest ;  indeed,  she  often  requires  to  be  removed 
to  her  food,  so  overpowering  is  her  instinctive  affection.  She  must  be 
freely  supplied  with  water  within  her  reach ;  should  she  lay  any  eggs 
after  she  has  commenced  incubation,  these  should  be  removed :  it  is 
proper,  therefore,  to  mai'k  those  which  were  given  to  her  to  sit  upon. 
The  hen  should  on  no  account  be  rashly  disturbed ;  no  one  except  the 
person  to  whom  she  is  accustomed,  and  from  whom  she  receives  her 
food,  should  be  allowed  to  go  near  her,  and  the  eggs,  unless  circum- 
stances imperatively  require  it,  should  not  be  meddled  with. 

On  the  twenty-sixth  day,  according  to  some  on  whom  dependence 
may  be  placed  (the  thirty-first  according  to  others),  the  chicks  leave 
the  eggs. 

The  treatment  of  the  chick  now  requires  attention.  As  in  the  case 
of  young  fowls,  the  turkey  chicks  do  not  require  food  for  several  hours. 
It  is  useless  to  cram  them,  as  some  do,  fearing  lest  they  should  starve  ; 
and  besides,  the  beak  is  as  yet  so  tender  that  it  runs  a  chance  of  being 
injured  by  the  process.  When  the  chicks  feel  an  inclination  for  food, 
nature  directs  them  how  to  pick  it  up.  There  is  no  occasion  for  alarm, 
if  for  many  hours  they  content  tliomselves  with  the  warmth  of  their 
parent,  and  enjoy  her  care  only.  Yet  some  food  must  be  provided  for 
them,  and  this  should  be,  of  course,  suited  to  their  nature  and  appetite. 
Here,  too,  let  the  simplicity  of  nature  be  a  guide.  We  say  this,  because 
some  have  recommended  spices,  wine,  and  even  bathing  in  cold  water. 

The  first  diet  ofi"ered  to  turkey  chicks  should  consist  of  eggs  boiled 


POULTKY.  255 

hard  and  finely  minced,  or  cnrd  with  bread  crnmbf,  boiled  nettles,  and 
the  green  part  of  onions,  parsley,  etc.,  chopped  very  small,  and  mixed 
together,  so  as  to  form  a  loose  crumbly  paste.  Barley  or  oatmeal, 
kneaded  with  a  little  water,  and  mixed  with  the  pulp  of  potatoes  and 
Swedish  turnips,  to  which  chopped  beet-leaves  are  added,  may  also  be 
given.  They  will  require  water;  but  this  should  be  put  into  very  shal- 
h)\v  vessels,  so  as  to  insure  against  the  danger  of  the  chicks  getting  wet. 
Fresh  milk  is  apt  to  disagree  with  the  young  birds,  and  is  not  needful. 
]>oth  the  turkey-hen  and  her  chickens  should  be  housed  for  a  few  days ; 
they  may  then,  if  the  weather  be  fine,  be  allowed  a  few  hours'  liberty 
during  the  day;  but  should  a  shower  threaten,  they  must  be  put  im- 
mediately under  shelter.  This  system  must  be  persevered  in  for  three 
or  four  weeks.  By  this  time  they  will  have  acquired  considerable 
strength,  and  will  know  how  to  take  care  of  themselves.  On  the  first 
drops  of  a  shower,  they  will  run  for  shelter  into  their  accustomed  place 
of  refuge,  which  should  be  warm  and  waterproof.  As  they  get  older, 
meal  and  grain  may  be  given  them  more  freely.  They  now  begin  to 
search  for  insects,  and  to  dust  their  growing  plumage  in  the  sand.  At 
the  age  of  about  two  months,  or  perhaps  a  little  more,  the  males  and 
females  begin  to  develop  their  distinctive  characteristics.  In  the  young 
males  the  carunculated  skin  of  the  neck  and  throat,  and  the  horn-like 
contractile  comb  on  the  forehead,  assume  a  marked  character.  This  is 
a  critical  period.  The  system  requires  a  full  supply  of  nutriment,  and 
good  housing  at  night  is  essential.  Some  recommend  that  a  few  grains 
of  cayenne  pepper,  or  a  little  bruised  hempseed,  be  mixed  with  their 
food.  The  distinctive  sexual  marks  once  fairly  established,  the  young 
birds  lose  their  names  of  chicks  or  chickens,  and  are  tei-med  turkey  poults. 
The  time  of  danger  is  over,  and  they  become  independent,  and  every 
day  stronger  and  more  hardy.  They  now  fare  as  the  rest  of  the  flock, 
on  good  and  sufficient  food,  if  their  keeper  is  alive  to  his  own  interest. 
I  again  repeat  it,  that  a  man  who  keeps  poultry  on  meagre,  spare,  in- 
nutritious  diet,  will  never  rear  fine  poultry,  and  never  repay  himself 
even  for  his  niggardly  outlay.  Poultry  should  never  be  in  bad  con- 
dition :  let  them  not  be  kept  at  all,  unless  they  are  kept  properly. 

THE  WILD  TURKEY  is  a  noble  bird,  far  exceeding  its  domestic  relative 
in  neatness  of  foi'm  and  beauty.  Crosses  in  America  often  take  place 
between  the  wild  and  tame  races,  and  are  highly  valued,  both  for  exter- 
nal qualities  and  for  the  table.  In  districts  where  the  wild  turkey  is 
common,  such  crosses  are  quite  frequent;  the  wild  male  driving  away 
his  domesticated  rival,  and  usurping  the  sultanship  of  the  seraglio. 
Eggs  of  the  wild  turkey  have  frequently  been  taken  from  their  nests,  and 
hatched  under  the  tame  hen.  The  young  prcvserve  a  portion  of  their 
uncivilized  nature,  and  exhibit  some  knowledge  of  the  difference  between 
themselves  and  their  foster-mother,  roosting  apart  from  the  tame  ones, 
and  in  other  respects  showing  the  force  of  hereditary  disposition.  The 
domesticated  young  reared  from  the  eggs  of  the  wild  turkey  are  often 
employed  as  decoy-birds  to  those  in  a  state  of  nature.  Mr.  William 
Bloom,  of  Clearfield,  Pennsylvania,  caught  five  or  six  wild  turkeys  when 
quite  chickens,  and  succeeded,  in  rearing  them.  Although  sufficiently 
-ime  to  feed  with  his  tame  turkeys,  and  generally  associate  wiUi  them, 


25 G  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

yet  they  always  retained  some  of  their  original  propensities,  roosting  by 
themselves,  and  higher  than  the  tame  birds,  generally  on  the  top  of 
some  tree,  or  on  the  house.  They  were  also  more  readily  alarmed.  On 
the  approaeh  of  a  dog  they  would  fly  off,  and  seek  safety  in  the  woods. 
On  an  occasion  of  this  kind,  one  of  them  flew  across  the  Susquehanna, 
and  the  owner  was  apprehensive  of  losing  it.  In  order  to  recover  it,  he 
sent  a  boy  with  a  tame  turkey,  which  was  released  at  the  place  where 
the  fugitive  had  alighted.  This  plan  was  successful.  They  soon  joined 
company,  and  the  tame  bird  induced  his  companion  to  return  home. 
Mr.  Bloom  found  occasion  to  remark  that  the  wild  turkey  will  thrive 
more  and  keep  in  better  condition  than  the  tame  turkey,  on  the  same 
quantity  of  food. 

The  native  country  of  the  wild  turkey  extends  from  the  northwestern 
territory  of  the  United  States  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  south  of  which 
it  is  not  to  be  found,  notwithstanding  the  statements  of  authors,  who 
have  mistaken  the  curassow  for  it.  In  Canada,  and  the  now  densely- 
peopled  parts  of  the  United  States,  wild  turkeys  were  formerly  very 
abundant,  but,  like  the  Indian  buff"alo,  they  have  been  compelled  to 
yield  to  the  destructive  ingenuity  of  the  white  settlers,  often  wantonly 
exercised,  and  seek  refuge  in  the  remotest  parts  of  the  interior.  Although 
they  relinquish  their  native  soil  with  slow  and  reluctant  steps,  yet  such 
is  the  rapidity  with  which  settlements  are  extended,  and  condensed  over 
the  surface  of  this  country,  that  we  may  anticipate  a  day,  at  no  distant 
period,  when  the  hunter  will  seek  the  wild  turkey  in  vain. 

The  wooded  part  of  Arkansas,  Louisiana,  Tennessee,  and  Alabama; 
the  unsettled  portions  of  the  states  of  Ohio,  Kentucky,  Indiana,  and 
Illinois  ;  the  vast  expanse  of  territory  northwest  of  these  states,  on  the 
Mississippi  and  Missouri,  as  hr  as  the  forests  extend,  are  more  supplied 
than  any  other  parts  of  the  Union  with  this  valuable  game,  which  forms 
an  important  part  of  the  subsistence  of  the  hunter  and  traveler  in  the 
wilderness.  It  is  not  probable  that  the  range  of  this  bird  extends  to 
or  beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  Mandan  Indians,  who  a  few 
years  ago  visited  the  city  of  Washington,  considered  the  turkey  one  of 
the  greatest  curiosities  they  had  seen,  and  prepared  a  skin  of  one  to 
carry  home  for  exhibition. 

In  Florida,  Georgia,  and  the  Carolinas,  the  wild  turkey  is  not  common, 
and  still  less  so  in  the  western  parts  of  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania. 
Some,  however,  are  said  to  exist  in  the  mountainous  districts  of  Sussex 
county,  New  Jersey. 

The  wild  turkey  is  irregularly  migratory,  as  well  as  irregularly  grega- 
rious. AVhenever  the  forest  fruits  (or  mast)  of  one  portion  of  the  country 
greatly  exceed  those  of  another,  thither  are  the  turkeys  insensibly  led, 
by  gradually  meeting  in  their  haunts  with  more  fruit,  the  nearer  they 
advance  toward  the  place  in  which  it  is  most  plentiful.  Thus,  in  an 
irregular  manner,  flock  follows  flock,  until  some  districts  are  deserted, 
while  others  are  crowded  with  an  influx  of  arrivals.  "  About  the 
beginning  of  October,"  says  Audubon,  "when  scarcely  any  of  the  seeds 
and  fruits  have  fallen  from  the  trees,  these  birds  assemble  in  flocks,  and 
gradually  move  toward  the  rich  bottom-lands  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi. 
The  males,  or,  as  they  are  more  commonly  called,  the  r/obblers,  asso';iate 


POULTEY.  257 

in  parties  of  from  ten  to  a  hundred,  and  search  for  food  apart  from  the 
females  ;  while  the  latter  are  seen  either  advancing  singly,  each  with 
her  brood  of  young,  then  about  two-thirds  grown,  or  in  union  with  other 
families,  forming  parties,  often  amounting  to  seventy  or  eighty  individuals, 
all  intent  on  shunning  the  old  cocks,  which,  when  the  young  birds  have 
attained  this  size,  will  fight  with  and  often  destroy  them  by  repeated 
blows  on  the  head.  Old  and  young,  however,  all  move  in  the  same 
course,  and  on  foot,  unless  their  progress  is  interrupted  by  a  river,  or  the 
hunter's  dog  force  them  to  take  wing. 

"  When  they  come  upon  a  river,  they  betake  themselves  to  the  highest 
eminences,  and  there  remain  often  a  whole  day,  and  sometimes  two,  as 
if  for  the  purpose  of  consultation.  During  this  time  the  males  are  heard 
gobbling,  calling,  and  making  much  ado,  and  are  seen  strutting  about, 
as  if  to  raise  their  courage  to  a  pitch  befitting  the  emergency.  Even 
the  females  and  young  assume  something  of  the  same  pompous  demean- 
or, spread  out  their  tails,  and  run  round  each  other,  purring  loudly,  and 
performing  extravagant  leaps.  At  length,  when  the  weather  appears 
settled,  and  all  around  is  quiet,  the  whole  party  mount  to  the  tops  of 
the  highest  tiees,  whence  at  a  signal,  consisting  of  a  single  cluck,  given 
by  a  leader,  the  flock  takes  flight  to  the  opposite  shore.  The  old  and 
fat  birds  easily  get  over,  even  should  the  river  be  a  mile  in  breadth,  but 
the  younger  and  less  robust  frequently  fall  into  the  water — not  to  be 
drowned,  however,  as  might  be  imagined  ;  they  bring  their  wings  close 
to  their  bodies,  spread  out  their  tails  as  a  support,  stretch  forward  their 
necks,  and  striking  out  their  legs  with  great  vigor,  proceed  rapidly 
toward  the  shore;  on  approaching  which,  should  they  find  it  too 
steep  for  landing,  they  cease  their  exertions  for  a  few  moments,  float 
down  the  stream  till  they  come  to  an  accessible  part,  and  by  a  violent 
effort  generally  extricate  themselves  from  the  water.  It  is  remarkable 
that,  immediately  after  crossing  a  large  stream,  they  ramble  about  for 
some  time  as  if  bewildered.  In  this  state  they  fall  an  easy  prey  to  the 
hunter. 

"  When  the  turkeys  arrive  in  parts  where  the  mast  is  abundant,  they 
separate  into  smaller  flocks,  composed  of  birds  of  all  ages  and  both  sexes, 
promiscuously  mingled,  and  devour  all  before  them.  This  happens 
about  the  middle  oiP  November.  So  gentle  do  they  sometimes  become 
after  these  long  journeys,  that  they  have  been  seen  to  approach  the 
farm-houses,  associate  with  the  domestic  fowls,  and  enter  the  stables  and 
corn-cribs  in  quest  of  food.  In  this  way,  roaming  about  the  forests, 
and  feeding  chiefly  on  mast,  they  pass  the  autumn,  and  part  of  the 
winter." 

The  season  of  courtship  begins  about  the  middle  of  Febrnary.  The 
females  now  separate  from  the  males,  whom  they  endeavor  to  shun,  but 
by  whom  they  are  perseveringly  followed. 

It  is  generally  about  the  middle  of  April  that  the  female  begins  to 
select  a  site,  and  arrange  her  rude  nest,  which  consists  chiefly  of  withered 
leaves,  in  some  depression  on  the  ground,  amidst  dense  brushwood,  or 
in  such  an  obscure  place  as  the  locality  affords.  The  eggs,  like  those 
of  the  domestic  bird,  are  of  large  size,  and  of  a  dull  cream-white, 
minutely  freckled  or  dotted  with  reddish-brown  ;  their  average  number 


258  DOMESTIC    AJS^IMALS. 

varies  from  ten  to  fifteen.  While  the  gradual  addition  of  egg  to  egg  is 
going  on,  the  hen  displays  surprising  instinctive  caution.  On  leaving 
her  charoje,  she  is  careful  to  cover  the  whole  with  dry  leaves,  so  artfully 
disposedas  to  render  it  difficult,  even  for  one  who  has  watched  her 
movements,  to  find  the  nest ;  and  on  returning  to  it  she  varies  her  rout, 
scarcely  ever  returning  to  it  twice  by  the  same  course.  Hence  it  is 
mostly  by  accident  that  the  nest  of  the  hen  is  discovered.  It  not 
unfrequently  happens  that  several  hens  associate  together  and  form  a 
common  nest,  probably  for  mutual  aid  and  assistance,  and  rear  their 
broods  together.  Audubon  says  that  he  once  found  three  hens  sitting 
on  forty-two  eggs.  In  such  cases  one  of  the  females  at  least  is  ever 
on  guard,  no  raven  or  crow  then  daring  to  invade  the  nest.  While 
in  the  act  of  incubation,  the  hen  is  not  readily  driven  from  her  nest  by 
the  appearance  of  danger.  A  person  walking  carelessly  along  as  if  taking 
no  particular  notice,  may  pass  a  nest  within  five  or  six  paces,  the  female 
crouching  low  to  avoid  observation;  but,  as  Mr.  Audubon  has  ascertained, 
if  a  person  make  his  approach  in  a  stealthy  searching  manner,  she 
will  quit  it  while  he  is  yet  thirty  yards  distant,  and  assuming  a  stately 
gait,  will  move  away,  uttering  every  now  and  then  a  clucking  note, 
probably  hoping  by  this  means  to  draw  off  the  intruder  and  baffle  his 
search.  The  same  writer  says  that  the  hen  seldom  or  never  abandons 
her  nest  if  it  has  been  discovered  by  man,  but  that  if  a  snake  or  any 
other  animal  has  sucked  any  of  the  eggs,  she  leaves  it  altogether.  Under 
such  circumstances,  or  when  the  eggs  have  been  removed,  she  seeks  the 
male,  and  recommences  tlie  preparation  of  another  nest ;  but,  as  a  rule, 
she  lays  only  a  single  batch  of  eggs  during  the  season.  When  the  eggs 
are  on  the  eve  of  hatching,  the  female  will  not  leave  her  nest  under  any 
circumstances  while  life  remains ;  she  will  even  allow  an  inclosure  to  be 
made  around  her,  and  thus  be,  as  it  were,  imprisoned,  rather  than  seek 
her  own  safety  by  flight. 

Before  leaving  the  nest  with  her  young  brood,  the  female  shakes 
herself,  adjusts  her  plumage,  and  appears  roused  to  the  exigencies 
of  the  occasion  ;  she  glances  upward  and  around  her,  in  the  apprehen- 
sion of  enemies,  and  as  she  moves  cautiously  along,  keeps  her  brood 
close  about  her;  her  first  excursion  is  generally  to  a  little  distance 
only  from  the  nest,  to  which  she  returns  with  her  brood  at  night.  Sub- 
sequently they  wander  to  a  greater  distance,  the  hen  leading  her  charge 
over  dry  undulating  grounds,  as  if  aware  of  the  danger  of  damp  and 
humid  spots.  Wet,  indeed,  is  fatal  to  young  turkeys  while  covered 
only  with  down  ;  hence,  in  very  rainy  seasons  the  brood  becomes  greatly 
thinned,  for  the  young,  if  once  completely  wetted,  seldom  recover; 
their  vital  energies  sink  under  the  abstraction  of  caloric  during  evapor- 
ation. 

At  the  age  of  a  fortnight,  the  young  birds  begin  to  use  their  wings  ; 
liitherto  they  have  rested  on  the  ground,  but  now  they  begin  to  roost  on 
the  low  branch  of  some  large  tree,  crowding  close  to  each  side  of  the 
mother,  and  sheltered  beneath  her  broad  wings.  They  now  wander 
about  more  freely,  visiting  the  glades  and  open  lands  bordering  the 
woods,  in  search  of  wild  strawberries  and  other  fruits,  grasshoppers,  the 
larvee  of  ants  and  other  insects  ;  and  roll  themselves  in  the  sand  and 


I'OULTJRY.  259 

jlnst,  in  order  to  clear  their  glowing  featliers  of  loose  scales  and  parasitic 
Vermin  :  deserted  ants'  nests  are  favorite  dusting-places. 

By  the  month  of  August,  the  young  birds  acquire  considerable  growth, 
and  use  their  wings  and  legs  with  great  vigor  and  readiness,  so  that  they 
are  able  to  escape  the  sudden  attack  of  foxes,  lynxes,  and  other  beasts 
of  prey,  by  rising  quickly  from  the  ground  and  mounting  the  tallest 
branches  of  trees.  '  The  young  cocks  now  begin  to  show  their  distinctive 
characteristics,  and  even  to  utter  an  imperfect  gobble,  while  the  voung 
hens  pur  and  leap.  Several  broods  Hock  together,  and  so  continue 
united,  till  after  the  October  migration,  and  through  the  winter,  when 
the  males  leave  the  females. 

Turkeys,  though  extremely  delicate  in  their  infancy,  become  very 
liardy,  and,  if  permitted,  will  roost  on  the  highest  trees,  in  the  cold  dry 
nights  of  winter,  without  suffering  injury.  The  hen,  which  lays  many 
eggs  early  in  spring,  sits  thirty  days,  and  covers  from  twelve  to  fifteen 
eggs.  It  is  unnecessary  for  the  turkey  cock,  as  is  the  case  with  galli- 
naceous fowl,  to  be  in  constant  intercourse  with  the  hen  during  her  period 
of  laying.  Two  visits  from  him  in  that  season  are  sufficient  to  impreg- 
nate all  the  eggs.  She  is  a  very  steady  sitter,  and  must  be  removed 
to  her  food  and  supplied  with  w^ater,  for  she  would  never  leave  her  nest. 
She  w'ants  the  alertness  and  courage  and  sagacity  of  the  common  hen, 
and  might  be  called  a  fool  with  much  more  propriety  than  the  goose, 
which  is  an  intelligent  bird.  'J  he  turkey  hen  is  incapable  of  teaching 
her  young  ones  how  to  pick  up  their  food,  on  which  accomit  a  poultry- 
maid  should  always  attend  them  until  they  are  reared. 

The  author  of  "  Tahcila  Cibaria''^  proves  it  upon  the  bird  that  it  is  "so 
stupid  or  timorous  that  if  you  balance  a  bit  of  straw  on  his  head,  or 
draw  a  line  of  chalk  on  the  ground  from  his  beak,  he  fancies  himself 
loaded,  or  so  bound  that  he  will  remain  in  the  same  position  till  hunger 
forces  him  to  move.  We  made  the  experiment."  We  never  did  ;  but 
we  doubt  it  not,  though  we  cannot  accept  it  as  a  proof  of  stupidity. 
How  much  wit  may  be  necessary  to  balance  a  straw  may  be  doubtful ; 
but  gallant  chanticleer  has  never  been  charged  either  with  fear  or  folly, 
and  yet  you  have  only  to  take  him  fi'om  his  perch,  place  him  on  the 
table  by  candle-light,  hold  his  beak  down  to  the  table,  and  draw  a  line 
with  chalk  from  it,  so  as  to  catch  his  eye,  and  there  the  bird  will  re- 
main spell-bound,  till  a  bystander,  rubbing  out  the  line,  or  diverting 
his  attention  from  it,  breaks  the  charm.  Many  a  fowl  have  we  fascinated 
in  our  boyish  days.* 

The  rilliliea-Fowl.  -The  Guinea-fowl  is  slightly  larger  than  the  ordi- 
nary barn-door  fowl,  but  is  inferior  in  size  to  the  larger  foreign  breeds, 
as  the  Malay  and  Spanish;  in  both  aspect  and  character  it  appears  to 
occupy  a  position  between  the  pheasant  and  the  turkey.  Although  long 
familiarized,  the  Guinea-fowl  has  never  been  fully  domesticated,  still  re- 
taining much  of  the  restlessness  and  shyness  of  its  primitive  feral  habits. 
It  is  very  courageous,  and  will  not  only  frequently  attack  the  turkey, 
but  even  prove  victorious  in  the  encounter. 

The  cock  and  hen  are  so  nearly  alike,  that  it  is  not  easy  to  distin- 

*  "  Tahella  Cibaria:' 


2G0 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


TUB  GITINEA-FOWL. 

guish  them  ;  there  is  sometimes  a  difference  of  hue  in  certain  parts ; 
but  this  difference  only  occurs  occasionally,  and  indeed  it  is  on  gait,  voice, 
and  demeanor  that  we  must  chiefly  depend.  It  must  be  remarked  that 
they  pair;  therefore  a  second  hen  will  be  neglected  and  useless  except 
for  eggs. 

Like  all  the  gallinaceous  birds,  the  Guinea-fowl  is  esteemed  for  its 
flesh  and  its  eggs,  which,  though  smaller  than  those  of  the  common 
fowl,  aie  very  excellent  and  numerous,  the  hen  commencing  to  lay  in 
the  month  of  May,  and  continuing  during  the  entire  summer.  After 
the  pheasant  season,  young  birds  of  the  year  are,  on  the  table,  by  no 
means  unworthy  substitutes  for  that  highly-prized  game.  Such  birds  are 
acceptable  in  the  London  market,  and  fetch  a  fair  price.  The  Guinea- 
fowl  is  of  a  wil  J,  shy,  rambling  disposition  ;  and,  domesticated  as  it  is, 
it  pertinaciously  retains  its  original  habits,  and  is  impatient  of  restraint. 
It  loves  to  wander  along  hedgerows,  over  meadows,  through  clover  or 
corn  fields,  and  amidst  copses  and  shrubberies;  hence  these  birds  re- 
quire careful  watching,  for  the  hens  will  lay  in  secret  places,  and  will 
sometimes  absent  themselves  entirely  from  the  farm-yard  until  they 
return  with  a  young  brood  around  them.  So  ingeniously  will  they 
conceal  themselves  and  their  nest,  so  cautiously  leave  it  and  return  to 
it,  as  to  elude  the  searching  glance  of  boys  well  used  to  bird-nesting; 
but  it  may  always  be  found  from  the  watchful  presence  of  the  cock 
while  the  hen  is  laying.  There  is  one  disadvantage  in  this,  the  bird 
will  sit  at  a  late  period,  and  bring  forth  her  brood  when  the  season  be- 
gins to  be  too  cold  for  the  tender  chickens.  The  best  plan  is,  to  con- 
trive that  the  hens  shall  lay  in  a  quiet  secluded  place,  and  to  give  about 
twenty  of  the  earliest  ogg^  to  a  common  hen  ready  to  receive  them,  who 
will  perform  the  duties  of  incubation  with  steadiness.  In  this  way  a 
brood  in  June  may  be  easily  obtained.     The  young  must  receive  the 


POULTKY.  261 

same  treatment  as  those  of  the  turkey,  and  equal  care ;  they  require  a 
mixture  of  boiled  vegetables,  with  curds,  farinaceous  food,  as  grits,  barley- 
meal,  etc.;  they  should  be  induced  to  eat  as  often  and  as  much  as  they 
will.  In  a  short  time  they  begin  to  search  for  insects  and  their  larvae; 
and  with  a  little  addition  to  such  fare  as  this,  and  what  vegetable  mat- 
ters they  pick  up,  will  keep  themselves  in  good  game  condition,  with- 
out cramming  or  overfeeding.  For  a  week  or  two  before  being  killed 
for  the  table,  they  should  have  a  liberal  allowance  of  grain  and  meal. 

Guinea-fowls  mate  in  pairs  ;  overlooking  this  circumstance  frequenth 
occasions  disappointment  in  the  broods.  The  period  of  incubation  is 
twenty-six  days.  Though  they  are  not  unprofitable  birds,  as  they  are 
capable  of  procuring  almost  entirely  their  own  living,  they  are  rejected 
by  many  on  account  both  of  their  wandering  habits,  which  give  trouble, 
and  their  disagreeable  voice,  resembling  the  noise  of  a  wheel  turning 
on  an  ungreased  axletree. 

THE  PEA-FOWL. — A  peacock  in  full  feather,  parading  on  a  green 
lawn,  or  from  the  extremity  of  a  terrace-w^all,  displaying  the  full  length 
of  his  gorgeous  tail,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  living  additions  to  gar- 
den landscape.  But  of  fruit  he  will  prove  a  devourer,  not  to  be  guarded 
against,  and  both  he  and  his  mate  are  not  unfrequently  murderous 
assassins  of  the  young  of  other  fowl. 

In  domestication  it  is  a  rambling  bird,  unsuited  to  confined  premises ; 
it  requires  lawns,  shrubberies,  and  wide  pleasure-grounds,  to  which  it  is 
an  appropriate  ornament,  whether  it  moves  about  with  its  tail  expanded, 
or  walks  trailing  it  along  down  avenues  of  smooth  turf,  or  amongst  the 
woodland  glades.  Semi-wild  as  the  peacock  is,  it  is  disposed  to  become 
familiar,  and  if  encouraged  will  visit  the  windows  of  the  house,  in  order 
to  receive  an  accustomed  dole  of  bread,  and  when  displaying  its  plumage 
seems  to  be  aware  of  the  admiration  it  inspires. 

Grain  of  various  kinds,  mast,  fruits,  insects  and  their  larvae,  together 
with  small  reptiles,  constitute  its  food.  It  is  not  until  the  third  year 
that  the  male  acquires  his  glorious  plumage ;  the  aigrette  on  the  head 
in  this  species  (but  not  in  the  Japan  peafowl)  is  composed  of  miniature 
plumes  similar  to  those  of  the  train.  The  tarsi  are  spurred,  and  when 
irritated,  the  peacock  can  use  them  w'ith  full  eff"ect. 

For  roosting,  the  peacock  affects  still  higher  branches  than  the  tur- 
key, and,  failing  these,  the  gable  end  of  a  house  or  barn,  or  some  ele- 
vated situation ;  and  here,  through  summer  and  winter  will  it  take  its 
station,  defying  the  rain  and  the  cold.  Strange  that  a  bird  originally 
from  India  should  be  so  hardy!  It  would  seem  as  if  Providence  had 
expressly  given  to  the  gallinaceous  birds  that  quality  of  constitution 
which  fits  them  for  accompanying  man  into  regions  far  remote  from 
their  natural  habitat.  Such  is  the  case,  indeed,  with  all  animals  essen- 
tially subservient  to  his  welfare ;  and  we  cannot  but  see  in  this  fact  a 
proof  of  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  that  God  who  commanded  man 
"  to  replenish  the  earth  and  subdue  it." 

Though  the  peafowl  roosts  in  trees,  the  female  incubates  on  the 
ground,  making  in  her  natural  state  a  rude,  inartificial  nest,  in  some 
•ecluded  spot,  under  cover  of  the  dense  jungle.  The  eggs  vary  in  num- 
ber from  five  to  ten.     This  concealment,  as  in  the  instance  of  the  tar- 

49 


202 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


key,  is  necessary ;  for,  actuated  by  a  strange  jealousy,  tlie  male  will 
break  all  the  eggs  if  he  discovers  them  ;  and  this  feeling  actuates  our 
domestic  birds,  insomuch  that  the  female,  during  incubation,  must  be 
placed  in  such  security  as  to  prevent  the  access  of  the  male  to  the  nest. 
Eggs,  grayish  white ;  period  of  incubation,  from  twenty-seven  to  thirty 
days. 


MUSK  OE  BEAZILIAN  DtTCKS. 


THE  DOMESTIC  DUCK.— Ducks  cannot  be  kept  to  advantage  unless 
they  can  have  access  to  water.  This  need  not  be  in  large  quantities. 
A  tub,  holding  a  few  gallons,  set  in  the  ground,  and  daily  renewed,  an- 
swering for  a  large  flock.  They  are  gross  feeders,  and  excellent  "snap- 
pers up  of  unconsidered  trifles."  Nothing  comes  amiss  to  them  :  green 
boiled  vegetables,  the  waste  of  the  kitchen,  meal  of  all  sorts  made  into 
paste,  grains,  bread,  animal  substances,  worms,  slugs  and  snails,  insects 
and  their  larvse,  are  all  accepted  with  eagerness.  Their  appetite  is  not 
fastidious;  in  fact,  to  parody  the  line  of  a  song,  "they  eat  all  that  is 
luscious,  eat  all  that  they  can,"  and  soein  determined  to  reward  their 
owner  by  keeping  themselves  in  first-rate  condition,  if  the  chance  of  so 
doing  is  afforded  them.  They  never  need  cramming — give  them  enough 
and  they  will  cram  themselves;  yet  they  have  their  requirements  and 
ways  of  their  own,  wdiich  must  be  conceded.  Confinement  wmII  not  do 
for  them  :  a  paddock,  an  orcluj'd,  a  green  lane,  and  a  pond ;  a  farm- 
yard, with  barns  and  water ;  a  common,  smooth  and  level,  with  a  sheet 
of  water,  abounding  in  the  season  with  tadpoles  and  the  larvre  of  aqua- 
tic insects, — these  are  the  localities  in  which  the  duck  delights,  and  in 
such  they  are  kept  at  little  expense.     They  traverse  the  green  sward  in 


POULTRY.  263 

Ii.'dian  file  (an  instinctive  liabit  still  retained),  and  thus  return  at  even- 
ing to  their  dormitor}^,  or  emerge  from  it  to  the  edge  of  the  pond  or 
sheet  of  water,  over  which  they  scatter  themselves ;  thus  also  they  come 
to  the  call  of  their  feeder. 

Ducks  should  always  have  a  lodging-place  of  their  own;  they  should 
be  separated  from  fowls,  and  never  housed  beneath  their  perches ;  yet 
where  fowls  are  kept,  a  little  contrivance  would  suffice  to  make  them  a 
*  comfortable  berth  in  a  fowl  house.  In  winter,  a  thin  bedding  of  straw, 
rushes,  or  fern-leaves,  should  be  placed  on  the  floor  of  their  dormitory, 
and  changed  frequently.  More  than  four  or  five  females  should  not  be 
allowed  to  a  single  drake.  The  duck  lays  a  great  many  eggs  in  the 
season  ;  there  are  instances  in  which  one  has  laid  as  many  as  eighty- 
five  eggs;  but  these  cases  are  rare;  the  female  will  cover  with  comfort 
twelve  or  fourteen,  and  in  most  cases  is  a  steady  sitter.  When  she  in- 
clines to  sit,  give  her  a  plentiful  nest,  with  some  broken  straw  or  hay 
near  at  hand,  with  which  to  cover  the  eggs  when  she  leaves  them ;  as 
nature  instructs  her  to  use  this  precaution,  no  doubt  it  is  best  to  give 
her  the  opportunity.  Let  her  be  supplied  with  food  and  water  directly 
she  leaves  her  nest;  and  if  she  choose  to  take  a  bath  it  will  do  no  harm. 
It  is  common  to  put  ducks'  eggs  under  hens,  and  it  is  ludicrous,  though 
somewhat  painful,  to  see  the  trepidation  and  anxiety  of  the  foster-mother 
on  the  edge  of  a  pond,  into  which  the  young  ducks  have  plunged,  re- 
gardless of  her  feelings  and  incessant  clucking,  a  language  they  do  not 
understand.  At  what  age  young  wild  ducks  are  taken  by  their  parents 
into  the  water  we  cannot  say;  but  this  is  certain,  that  if  young  tame 
ducks  visit  the  water  too  early,  they  are  very  apt  to  become  cramped  and 
perish.  If  very  young  ducklings  once  become  saturated  with  water,  they 
invariably  perish;  they  are  in  this  respect  as  tender  as  young  turkeys. 
Ducks,  although  they  float  on  the  water,  never  become  wet  (that  is, 
when  properly  fledged),  for  their  plumage  throws  off  the  fluid,  and  they 
return  dry  from  the  pond  ;  but  ducklings,  while  yet  in  the  down,  get 
wet,  and  should  therefore  have  sparing  access  to  water  until  the  feathers 
supply  the  place  of  the  early  down.  Young  ducks  are  easily  reared, 
being  fed  on  meal  mixed  with  potatoes  and  green  meat  boiled  ;  they 
are  useful  in  gardens,  which  they  clear  of  slugs  and  snails,  without  in- 
juring the  crops  of  vegetables.  As  a  caution,  we  would  here  observe, 
that  the  ponds  to  which  they  are  allowed  access  should  contain  neither 
pike  nor  eels ;  and  rats  should  be  extirpated.  Rats  and  weasels  often 
thin  flocks  of  ducklings,  to  the  great  loss  and  vexation  of  their  owner. 

The  Varieties  of  the  Domestic  Duck,  are  the  White  Ayleshuri/,  laige, 

plumage  perfectly  white,  feet  yellowy  and  a  flesh-colored  bill.  This  is 
one  of  the  best  varieties.  The  Rouen  duck,  a  large  dark-colored  varie- 
ty, is  also  highly  esteemed.  The  Hook-billed,  remarkable  for  the  pecu- 
liar form  of  its  beak.  The  Penguin  duck,  which  walks,  or  waddles  in 
an  upright  position,  like  the  penguin  ;  the  Musk  duck,  so  termed  from 
the  strong  scent  of  musk  which  its  skin  exhales.  This  duck  is  of  large 
size,  and  its  plumage  of  a  glossy  blue-black.  The  East  Indian,  or 
Buenos  Ayres  duck,  is  a  small  and  very  beautiful  variety,  black,  with  a 
brilliant  metallic  luster  on  the  feathers.  These,  and  the  various  colored 
eall-dueks,  are  highly  ornamental. 


264:  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

The  egg  of  the  duck  is  by  some  people  very  much  relished,  having  h 
rich  piquancy  of  flavor,  which  gives  it  a  decided  superiority  over  the 
egg  of  the  common  fowl ;  and  these  qualities  render  it  much  in  request 
with  the  pastry-cook  and  confectioners — three  duck  eggs  being  equal 
in  culinary  value  to  six  hen  eggs.  The  duck  does  not  lay  during  the 
day,  but  generally  in  the  night;  exceptions  regulated  by  circumstances, 
will,  of  course,  occasionally  occur.  While  laying,  the  duck  requires 
more  attention  than  the  hen,  until  she  is  accustomed  to  resort  to  a  reg- 
ular nest  for  depositing  her  eggs — once,  however,  that  this  is  eflfected, 
she  will  no  longer  require  your  attendance. 

THE  DOMESTIC  GOOSE.— The  best  variety  of  the  domestic  goose  is 
that  which  varies  least  in  color.  Gray  is  the  best  color.  Mixed  colors 
should  be  rejected. 

As  to  breeding  geese.  These  birds,  as  has  been  ascertained  by  M. 
St.  Genis,  will  pair  like  pigeons;  and  even  if  the  number  of  ganders 
exceeds  that  of  the  geese,  no  noise  or  riot  takes  place,  mutual  choice  be- 
ing evidently  the  ruling  principle.  Amongst  other  experiments  tried 
by  M.  St.  Genis,  he  left,  besides  the  patriarch  of  the  flock,  two  of  the 
young  ganders,  unprovided  with  mates,  but  still  those  couples  that  had 
paired  kept  constantly  together,  and  the  three  single  ganders  never 
attempted  to  approach  any  of  the  females  during  the  temporary  absence 
of  their  lords.  M.  St.  Genis  also  remarked,  in  the  course  of  his  obser- 
vations, that  the  gander  is  more  frequently  white  than  the  goose. 

The  goose  deposits  from  ten  to  twenty  eggs  at  one  laying;  but,  if  you 
do  not  desire  her  to  sit,  you  may,  by  removing  the  eggs  as  fast  as  they 
are  laid,  and  at  the  same  time  feeding  her  highly,  induce  her  to  lay  on 
from  forty-five  to  fifty.  This  is,  however,  unusual,  and  it  is  unprofitable. 
When  tolerably  well  cared  for,  geese  may  be  made  to  lay,  and  even 
hatch,  three  times  in  the  year.  This  care  consists  merely  in  high  feed- 
ing and  good  housing  early  in  the  spring,  so  as  to  have  the  first  brood 
early  in  March  ;  but  we  would  rather  have  two  good  broods  reared  than 
three  bad  ones,  and  we  are,  therefore,  more  disposed  to  recommend 
patience  and  moderation. 

The  goose  will,  when  left  to  the  unassisted  promptings  of  nature,  be- 
gin to  lay  about  the  latter  end  of  February,  or  the  beginning  of  March. 
The  commencement  of  the  laying  may  be  readily  foreseen  by  marking 
such  geese  as  run  about  carrying  straws  in  their  mouth.  This  is  for  the 
purpose  of  forming  their  nest,  and  these  individuals  are  about  to  lay. 
They  should,  then,  of  course,  be  watched,  lest  they  drop  their  eggs 
abroad.  Once  a  goose  is  shut  up,  and  compelled  to  lay  her  first  egg  of 
that  laying  in  any  particular  nest,  you  need  be  at  no  further  trouble 
about  her;  for  she  will  continue  to  lay  in  that  spot,  and  will  not  stray 
on  any  account  elsewhere. 

We  can  always  detect  the  inclination  of  the  goose  to  sit  or  hatch. 
This  is  known  by  the  bird  keeping  in  the  nest  after  the  laying  of  each 
egg  longer  than  usual.  The  hatching  nest  should  be  formed  of  straw, 
with  a  little  hay  as  a  lining;  and  so  formed  that  the  goose  will  not  fliug 
the  eggs  over  the  side  when  in  the  act  of  turning  them.  You  need  not 
banish  the  gander ;  on  the  contrary,  let  him  remain  as  near  the  nest  as 
he  chooses;  he  will  do  no  mischief,  but  will  act  the  part  of  a  most  vigi- 


pom/riiY. 


265 


EMBDEN   OR    BUKiMTiN    GKTSE. 


lant  guardian.  About  fifteen  eggs  will  be  found  as  many  as  a  good- 
sized  goose  can  properly  cover.  Do  not  meddle  v.ith  the  eggs  during 
tlie  incubation,  and  do  not  meddle  with  the  goose;  but,  as  she  is  some- 
what heavier  than  the  hen,  you  may  leave  her  food  and  drink  rather 
nearer  to  her  than  is  necessary  with  common  poultry,  as,  if  she  chanced 
to  absent  herself  from  the  eggs  sufficiently  long  to  permit  them  to  cool, 
she  might  become  disheartened,  and  desert  her  task  altogether.  It  is, 
however,  unnecessary  to  put  either  vinegar  or  pepper  in  her  food  or 
water,  as  recommended  by  some,  or,  in  short,  to  meddle  with  her  at  all. 

The  goose  will  sit  on  her  eggs  for  nearly  two  months ;  but  the  neces- 
sary period  of  incubation  being  but  one,  the  early  hatched  goslings 
must  be  removed  lest  the  more  tardy  might  be  deserted.  About  the 
twenty-ninth  day  the  goslings  begin  to  chip  the  shell ;  and  if  their  own 
powers  prove  inadequate  to  their  liberation,  aid  may  be  rendered  them, 
and  that,  also,  with  much  less  risk  than  in  the  case  of  other  young 
birds,  the  shell  and  its  membranes  being  very  hard  and  strong,  and  the 
young  themselves  also  hardy,  and  capable  early  of  enduring  hardship. 
The  best  plan  is  to  have  the  eggs  set,  of  as  nearly  as  possible  equal 
freshness,  that  they  may  be  hatched  at  one  time. 

On  first  being  hatched,  turn  the  goslings  out  into  a  sunny  walk,  if 
tlie  weather  will  permit  of  such  procedure  ;  but  do  not  try  to  make 
them  feed  for,  at  least,  twelve  hours  after  leaving  the  shell.  Their  food 
may  then  be  bread  soaked  in  milk,  porridge,  curds,  boiled  greens,  or 
even  bran,  mixed  with  boiled  potatoes,  taking  care  not  to  give  the  food 
12 


266  DOM]:6TIC    AisIMALS. 

in  too  hot  a  state,  wliile  you  equally  avoid  givinp^  it  cold.  Avoid  rain 
or  cold  breezes  ;  and  see,  therefore,  that  the  walk  into  which  you  turn 
the  young-  goshngs  be  sheltered  from  both  wind  and  weather.  The 
goslings  should  also  be  kept  from  water  for  at  least  a  couple  of  days 
after  hatching.  If  suffered  too  early  to  have  free  access  to  water,  they 
are  very  liable  to  take  cramp — a  disease  which  generally  produces  per- 
manent lameness  and  deformity,  and  but  too  frequently  proves  fatal. 

Geese  should  have  an  inclosed  court  or  yard,  with  houses -in  which 
thev  mav  be  shut  when  occasion  requires.  It  is  better,  however,  to 
confine  them  as  little  as  possible;  and,  by  suffering  them  to  stroll  about^ 
and  forage  for  themselves,  the  expense  of  rearing  them  will  fall  com- 
paratively lightly  on  you,  so  that  you  will  not  be  conscious  of  any  out- 
lay. Geese  require  water,  and  cannot  be  advantageously  kept  when 
they  cannot  have  access  to  it;  still,  however,  we  have  known  them  to 
thrive  where  they  had  no  access  to  any  pond  or  river,  but  had  only  a 
small  artificial  pool,  constructed  by  their  owners,  in  which  to  bathe 
themselves.  When  geese  are  at  all  within  reach  of  water,  they  will, 
when  suffered  to  roam  at  liberty,  usually  go  in  search  of,  and  discover  it, 
and  will,  afterward,  daily  resort  thither.  Though  the  birds  are  thus 
fond  of  water,  all  damp  about  their  sleeping  places  must  be  scrupulously 
guarded  against.  Grass  is  as  necessary  to  the  well-being  of  geese  as 
water;  and  the  rankest,  coarsest  grasses,  such  as  are  rejected  by  cattle, 
constitute  the  goose's  delicacy. 

THE  WILD  GOOSE.— Canada  Goose,  or  Cravat  Goose  (Anspr  Cana- 
densis), JVeescash  and  Mistchaynceseah  of  the  Cree  Indian,  Wild  Goose 
of  the  Anglo-Americans,  llearne,  Wilson,  Audubon,  Bonaparte,  and 
others  have  given  us  full  accounts  of  the  habits  and  manners  of  the 
Canada  goose  in  a  state  of  nature.  It  is  the  common  wild  goose  of  the 
United  States,  and  its  re2:ular  periodical  migrations  are  the  sure  signals 
of  returning  spring,  or  of  approaching  w^inter.  The  tracts  of  their  vast 
migratory  journeys  are  not  confined  to  the  sea-coast  or  its  vicinity,  for, 
in  their  aerial  voyages  to  and  from  the  north,  these  birds  pass  over  the 
interior  on  both  sides  of  the  mountains,  as  far  west,  at  least,  as  the  Osage 
River.  "I  have  never,"  says  Wilson,  "yet  visited  any  quarter  of  the 
country  where  the  inhabitants  are  not  familiarly  acquainted  with  the 
regular  passing  and  repassing  of  the  wild  geese."  It  is  an  opinion 
in  the  states  that  they  visit  the  lakes  to  breed.  Most,  however,  it 
would  appear,  wing  their  way  much  farther  northward,  for  from  the 
Canadian  lakes  they  migrate  to  still  higher  latitudes  on  the  setting  in 
of  spring.  llearne  saw  them  in  large  flocks  within  the  arctic  circle, 
pushing  their  way  still  northward.  Captain  Phipps  observed  them  on 
the  coast  of  Spitzbergen,  in  latitude  80°  27'  N.  Audubon  found  them 
breeding  on  the  coast  of  Labrador,  and  states  that  the  eggs,  six  or  seven 
in  number,  of  a  greenish  white,  are  deposited  in  a  roughly  made  nest. 
Bonaparte  states  that  they  breed  everywhere  throughout  the  Hudson's 
Bay  territory,  and  have  been  observed  in  the  middle  of  July  on  the 
Copper-mine  river,  not  far  from  its  debouchure,  accompanied  by  their 
newly-hatched  young.  The  cry  of  the  species  is  imitated  by  a  nasal 
repetition  of  the  syllable  wook,  or,  as  Wilson  writes  it,  houk. 

The  destruction  of  the  Canada  geese  during  their  migrations  is  enor- 


rouLTKY.  267 

mons  :  the  antiimnal  fli<:i:ht  lasts  from  the  middle  of  Angnist  to  the  middle  ^ 
of  October  ;  those  Avhich  are  taken  in  this  season,  when  the  frosts  begin, 
are  preserved  in  their  feathers,  and  left  to  be  frozen  for  the  fresh  pro- 
visions of  the  winter  stock.  The  feathers  constitute  an  article  of  com- 
merce, and  are  sent  to  Eng-land.  The  vernal  flight  of  these  geese  lasts 
from  the  middle  of  April  until  the  middle  of  May.  Their  arrival  in  the 
fur  countries  from  the  south  is  impatiently  expected  ;  it  is  the  harbinger 
of  spring,  and  the  month  is  named  by  the  Indians  the  goose-moon.  Dr. 
Richardson,  in  his  Fauna  Borcali- Americana^  describes  as  follows  the 
interest  caused  by  the  appearance  of  the  flocks:  — "The  arrival  of  this 
well-known  bird  is  anxiously  looked  for  and  hailed  with  great  joy  by 
the  natives  of  the  woody  and  swampy  districts,  who  depend  principally 
on  it  for  subsistence  during  the  summer.  It  makes  its  first  appearance 
in  flocks  of  twenty  or  thirty,  which  are  readily  decoyed  w^ithin  gunshot 
by  the  hunters,  who  conceal  themselves  and  imitate  its  call.  Two,  three 
or  more  are  so  frequently  killed  at  a  shot,  that  the  usual  price  of  a  goose 
is  the  single  charge  of  ammunition.  One  goose,  which  when  fat  weiglis 
about  nine  pounds,  is  the  daily  ration  of  one  of  the  Company's  servants 
during  the  season,  and  is  reckoned  equivalent  to  two  snow-geese  {^Anas 
hi/pei'horea)^  or  three  ducks,  or  eight  pounds  of  buff'alo  and  moose- 
meat,  or  two  pounds  of  pemrnican,  or  a  pint  of  maize  and  four  ounces  of 
suet. 

"  About  three  weeks  after  their  first  appearance,  the  Canada  geese 
disperse  in  pairs  throughout  the  country,  between  the  fiftieth  and  sixty- 
seventh  parallels,  to  breed,  retiring  at  the  same  time  from  the  shores  of 
Hudson's  Bay.  They  are  seldom  or  never  seen  on  the  coasts  of  the 
arctic  sea.  In  July,  after  the  young  birds  are  hatched,  the  parents 
moult,  and  vast  numbers  are  killed  in  the  rivers  and  lakes,  when  (from 
the  loss  of  their  quill  feathers)  they  are  unable  to  fly.  AVhen  chased 
by  a  canoe,  and  obliged  to  dive  frequently,  they  soon  become  fatigued, 
and  make  for  the  shore  with  the  intention  of  hiding  themselves;  but  as 
they  are  not  fleet,  they  fall  an  easy  prey  to  their  pursuers.  In  the 
autumn  they  again  assemble  in  flocks  on  the  shores  of  Hudson's  Bay  for 
three  weeks  or  a  month  previous  to  their  departure  southward." 

The  Canada  goose  feeds  on  aquatic  vegetables  and  their  roots,  and 
delicate  marine  plants  of  the  genus  ulva.  To  this  diet  they  add  grain 
and  berries  in  their  season. 

The  flight  of  this  species  is  laborious  and  heavy,  and  generally  in 
single  file,  or  in  the  form  of  two  sides  of  a  triangle,  the  leader,  some 
old  gander,  being  the  a-picol  bird.  From  time  to  time  this  leader  utters 
his  deep  ^^  honk,''''  which  is  responded  to  by  the  rest  of  the  flock,  and 
which  may  be  translated,  "What  cheer,  ho?"  "All's  well!"  Very 
often,  however,  all  is  not  well,  for  the  line  is  scattered  by  the  fire  of  the 
gunner;  often,  too,  they  meet  with  dense  fogs,  in  which  they  become 
bewildered,  and  after  wheeling  about  alight  on  the  ground,  where  the 
gunners  give  them  a  warm  reception.  In  some  districts  the  sportsmen 
take  with  them  into  the  marshes  one  or  two  of  the  domesticated  race, 
which  by  their  call  attract  the  flocks  passing  overhead,  and  allure  them 
to  destruction. 

Wilson  says  that,  except  in  calm  weather,  the  flocks  of  Canada  geese 


268  DuMKbTlU     A2n1MALS. 

Rarely  sleep  on  the  water,  generally  preferring  to  roost  all  night  in  the 
marshes.  When  the  shallow  bays  are  frozen,  they  seek  the  mouths  of 
inlets  near  the  sea,  occasionally  visiting  the  air-holes  in  the  ice  ;  but 
these  bays  are  seldom  so  completely  frozen  as  to  prevent  them  feeding 
on  the  bars  at  the  entrance. 

The  Canada  goose  is  a  beautiful  species,  and  its  flesh  is  excellent. 
The  head,  two-thirds  of  the  neck,  the  greater  quills,  the  rump,  and  tail 
are  perfectly  black  ;  the  back  and  wnngs  brown,  edged  with  wood-brown  ; 
the  base  of  the  neck  anteriorly,  and  the  under  plumage  generally,  brown- 
ish gray  ;  a  few  white  feathers  are  scattered  about  the  eye,  and  a  white 
cravat  of  a  kidney  shape  forms  a  conspicuous  mark  on  the  throat;  upper 
and  under  tail  coverts  pure  white  ;  bill  and  feet  black.  Such  is  a  brief 
sketch  of  the  Canada  goose  in  a  state  of  nature.  Man,  however,  has 
appreciated  its  value,  and  it  is  kept  domesticated  not  only  in  Am.erica, 
but  in  many  parts  of  Europe  where  it  breeds  freely.  In  America  the 
ordinary  gray  goose  of  Europe  is  very  common  ;  but  this  bird  does  not 
thrive  there  so  well  as  in  Europe  ;  hence  many  prefer  the  Canada  goose, 
which  is  as  familiar,  and  its  equal  in  other  points. 

This  species  will  breed  with  the  common  goose ;  and  it  is  asserted 
that  the  hybrid  progeny  is  far  superior  in  the  flavor  and  sapidity  of  its 
flesh  to  the  unmixed  progeny  of  the  common  goose.  Buft'on,  in  whose 
time  the  Canada  goose  was  kept  in  a  domestic  state  in  France,  says : 
"  Within  these  few  years  many  hundreds  have  inhabited  the  great  canal 
at  Versailles,  where  they  breed  familiarly  with  the  swans."  That  is,  we 
suppose,  interbreed  with  the  swans,  an  instance  of  which  has  not  come 
under  our  own  notice  ;  the  intermediate  position,  however,  of  this  spe- 
cies renders  the  fact  probable. 

Like  the  duck  and  the  common  goose,  the  Canada  goose  under  do- 
mestication ceases  to  be  as  strictly  monogamous  as  it  is  in  its  wild  state 
— a  circumstance  which,  in  our  tame  anatidce,  may  result  from  the  plan 
of  keeping  but  few  males,  and  these  in  association  with  a  flock  of  fe- 
males, vso  that  the  ordinary  results  of  pairing — that  is,  retiring  from  the 
rest  to  a  secluded  spot,  which  the  mated  pair  exclusively  occupy — are 
interfered  with.  Yet,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  instance  of  the  common 
goose,  the  male  generally  attaches  himself  to  a  particular  female,  while 
she  is  followed  by  her  brood  of  goslings  over  the  common,  and  is  ener- 
getic in  their  defense.  The  instinct  is  not  quite  obliterated — there  is  a 
reigning  sultana. 

It  is  a  question  worth  attention,  whether  the  Canada  goose  might  not 
with  advantage  be  more  extensively  kept  in  our  country  than  it  is  at 
present;  it  is  common  as  an  ornament  to  sheets  of  water  in  parks,  gar- 
dens, and  pleasure  grounds,  but  is  too  much  neglected  as  a  bird  of  utility  ; 
it  is  alike  valuable  for  flesh  and  feathers  ;  it  is  not  so  decided  a  grazer 
as  is  the  common  goose  ;  the  precincts  of  marshes  and  ponds  wliich 
abound  in  aquatic  vegetation,  for  the  procuring  of  which  its  strong  bill 
and  long  swan-like  neck  aff'ord  it  facility,  offer  the  most  advantageous 
sites  for  its  establishment,  and  in  such  localities  we  strongly  recommend 
its  adoption.  With  regard  to  its  management  little  is  to  be  said ;  the 
sitting  females  require  secluded  nests,  free  from  intrusion  ;  and  the  flock, 
in  addition  to  the  vegetables  they  pick  up,  require  an  allowance  of  grain. 


POULTET.  s  269 

Like  most  birds  known  both  in  a  wild  and  domestic  state,  the  latter  ex- 
ceed the  former  in  weight  and  magnitude. 

FEEDLYG  POULTRV.— It  is  a  bad  practice  to  under  feed  poultry.  From 
the  very  first  they  should  have  good  and  solid  food.  Steamed  potatoes 
and  other  roots  mixed  with  meal  of  the  various  grains,  form  a  cheap 
and  excellent  food.  It  is  not  necessary  to  soak,  grind,  or  boil  the  grains 
for  fowls,  however,  where  they  can  have  free  access  to  pebbles  to  supply 
their  own  grinding-mills,  by  which  they  turn  their  own  grain  into  flour. 
But  when  pent  up  and  unable  to  procure  what  they  so  much  need,  meal, 
and  boiled  and  crushed  food  should  then  be  given  them.  The  poultry- 
house,  however,  should  be  constantly  supplied  with  fine  gravel,  lime,  and 
pulverized  charcoal — articles  indispensable  to  the  health  and  improve- 
ment of  fowls.  Green  food  should  be  given  them  daily.  Cabbages  hung 
where  the  fowls  can  pick  at  them  are  a  good  article.  In  winter,  chopped 
potatoes,  turnips,  etc.,  are  the  only  convenient  green  food.  When  prac- 
ticable, fresh  animal  food  should  be  frequently  given  fowls  that  are  shut 
up,  or  at  seasons  when  they  cannot  procure  insects  or  worms.  A  bul- 
lock's liver,  thrown  in  the  yard,  is  a  cheap  and  good  food  for  them. 
Indian  corn  is  an  excellent  food,  and  may  be  freely  given. 

Cayenne  pepper,  indeed  all  descriptions  of  pepper,  especially  the 
cayenne  in  pods,  will  be  found  a  favorite  with  fowl,  and  will  be  greedily 
devoured  by  them ;  it  acts  as  a  powerful  stimulant,  and  remarkably 
promotes  laying ;  and,  when  mixed  in  a  ground  state  with  boiled  meal, 
will  be  found  productive  of  the  best  effects.  In  this,  however,  as  in 
every  thing  else,  let  moderation  be  your  ruling  principle. 

A  different  system  should  be  adopted  in  treating  poultry  for  the  table, 
and  for  the  laying  and  breeding  department. 

With  regard  to  feeding  fowls  for  the  table,  much  depends  on  circum- 
stances. Spring  chickens  may  be  put  up  for  feeding  as  soon  as  the  hen 
ceases  to  regard  them,  and  before  they  lose  their  first  good  condition. 
In  their  fattening-pens  they  will  have  no  opportunity  of  picking  up 
little  pebbles ;  their  mills,  therefore,  will  be  inoperative,  and  the  diet 
must  consequently  be  pultaceous,  viz.,  bread  and  milk,  barley-meal,  or 
oatmeal  and  milk,  and  meal  of  steamed  potatoes  mixed  with  barley- 
meal.  Some  recommend  the  occasional  addition  of  a  few  grains  of 
cayenne  pepper,  or  of  dried  nettle-seeds,  which  the  foreign  feeders  are 
in  the  habit  of  giving.  Where  chickens  have  the  run  of  a  good  farm- 
yard, and  plenty  of  food,  it  is  a  work  of  supererogation  to  pen  them  for 
fattening;  they  will  be  ready  at  any  time  for  the  table,  and  their  flesh, 
being  in  its  healthy  state,  will  be  sweet  and  juicy,  delicately  tender,  and 
sufficiently  fat.  Some,  indeed,  prefer  fatted  fowls ;  but  this  is  a  matter 
of  taste;  to  many  the  greasy  fat  of  poultry  is  very  disgusting. 

The  practice  of  cramming  poultry  by  the  hand  is  quite  common, 
though  not  to  be  recommended.  In  France  they  have  machines  by 
which  one  man  can  cram  fifty  birds  in  half  an  hour.  It  is  somewhat 
on  the  principle  of  a  forcing-pump.  The  throats  of  the  birds  are  held 
open  by  the  operator  until  they  are  gorged  through  a  pipe,  which  con- 
veys the  food  from  a  reservoir  below  placed  on  a  stool.  In  fifteen  days, 
fowls  are  said  to  attain  the  highest  state  of  fatness  and  flavor  by  this 
feeding.   In  addition  to  the  ordinary  paste  of  barley-meal,  or  meal  made 


270  DOMESTIC  AisrmALS. 

into  little  balls  with  milk,  the  dried  seeds  and  leaves  of  nettles  have  been 
recommended  by  the  continental  poulterers,  some  of  whom  give  a  little 
henbane-seed  to  induce  sleep,  while  others  put  out  the  eyes  of  the 
prisoners  as  the  most  effectual  way  of  keeping  them  in  a  state  of  dark- 
ness, which  is  considered  essential  to  their  becoming  rapidly  fat ;  and 
under  the  pretext  of  relieving  them  from  the  irritation  of  vermin,  they 
pluck  the  feathers  from  their  heads,  bellies,  and  wings.  While  fowls 
are  thus  preparing  for  the  knife,  though  their  bodies  are  closely  con- 
fined, their  hinder  parts  are  free  for  evacuation  and  cleanliness,  and  their 
heads  are  at  liberty  to  take  in  fresh  supplies  of  nutriment. 

Poultry  are  the  better  for  high  feeding  from  the  very  shell,  and  on 
this  account  the  heaviest  corn  is  often  far  cheaper  for  them  in  the  end 
than  tailings,  as  regards  the  flesh,  or  the  size  and  substantial  goodness 
of  the  eggs.  Young  chickens  may  be  put  up  for  feeding  as  soon  as  the 
hen  has  ceased  to  regard  them,  and  before  they  lose  their  first  good 
condition.  When  chickens  are  wanted  for  domestic  purposes,  they  are 
often  left  a^  liberty  in  the  farm-yard,  and  if  they  have  plenty  of  good 
food,  they  will  be  in  the  most  healthful  state  for  the  table,  and  rich  and 
juicy  in  flavor. 

POULTRY-HOUSES  AND  YARDS.— Those  who  intend  to  rear  fowls  or  any 
kind  of  poultry  on  a  large  scale,  should  have  a  distinct  yard,  perfectly 
sheltered,  and  with  a  warm  aspect,  well  fenced,  secure  from  thieves  and 
vermin,  and  sufficiently  inclined  to  be  always  dry,  and  supplied  with 
sand  or  ashes  for  the  cocks  and  hens  to  roll  in,  an  operation  necessary 
to  disengage  their  feathers  from  vermin  :  running  water  should  be 
especially  provided  ;  for  the  want  of  water,  of  which  all  poultry  are  fond, 
produces  constipation  of  the  bowels  and  inflammatory  diseases;  and  for 
geese  and  ducks,  bathing  is  an  indispensable  luxury.  A  contiguous  field 
is  also  necessary,  for  free  exercise,  as  well  as  for  the  supply  of  grubs  and 
grass  to  the  geese.  The  fowl-house  should  be  dry,  well-roofed,  and 
fronting  the  east  or  south,  and,  if  practicable,  at  the  back  of  a  stove  or 
stables;  warmth  being  conducive  to  health  and  laying,  though  extreme 
heat  has  the  contrary  effect.  It  should  be  furnished  with  two  small 
lattice  windows,  that  can  be  opened  or  shut  at  pleasure,  at  opposite  ends, 
for  ventilation,  which  is  frequently  necessary;  and  the  perches  should 
be  so  arranged,  that  one  row  of  roosting  fowls  should  not  be  directly 
above  another. 

M.  Parmentier  has  shown*  by  what  arrangement  a  house  twenty  feet 
long  and  twelve  feet  wide  may  be  made  to  accommodate  one  hundred 
and  fifty  hens  at  roost.  The  plan  is  simply  this  :  the  first  roosting-peroh 
(rounded  a  little  at  the  upper  angles  only,  for  gallinaceous  fowls  cannot 
keep  a  firm  hold  on  perfectly  cylindrical  supporters)  should  be  placed 
lengthways  and  rest  on  trestles  in  each  end  wall,  six  Ijeet  from  the  front 
wall,  and  at  a  convenient  height,  which  must  depend  on  the  elevation 
of  the  house  from  the  floor,  which  should  be  formed  of  some  well  con- 
solidated material  that  can  be  easily  swept.  Another  perch  should 
be  fixed  ladder-ways  (f>^  echelon)  ahove  this,  but  ten  inches  nearer  to  the 
back  wall,  and  so  on,  until  there  are  four  of  these  perches,  like  the  steps 

*  "■DicUonnaire  (T Agriculture.^^ 


rOULTEY.  271 

of  a  ladder  whon  properly  inclined,  but  with  a  snfficiont  distance  between 
the  wall  and  the  upper  one  to  allow  the  poultry-maid  to  stand  con- 
veniently upon  when  she  has  occasion  to  examine  the  nests,  which  it  is 
her  duty  to  do  every  day  at  least  once,  and  in  the  forenoon.  The 
highest  of  these  she  can  reach  by  standing  on  a  stool  or  step-ladder. 
By  this  contrivance  the  hens,  when  desirous  of  reaching  the  nests,  have 
no  occasion  to  Hy,  but  merely  to  pass  from  one  stick  to  another.  If  the 
size  and  form  of  the  house  permit,  a  similar  construction  may  be  made 
on  the  opposite  side,  care  being  taken  to  leave  an  open  space  in  the 
middle  of  the  room,  and  a  sufficiently  wide  passage  for  the  attendant  to 
pass  along  the  walls.  It  is  not  at  all  required  to  have  as  many  nests  as 
hens,  because  they  have  not  all  occasion  to  occupy  them  at  the  same 
time  ;  and  besides,  they  are  so  far  from  having  a  repugnance  to  lay  in 
a  common  receptacle,  that  the  sight  of  an  Gg;<r  stimulates  them  to  lay. 
It  is  however  true,  that  the  most  secluded  and  darkest  nests  are  those 
which  the  hens  prefer. 

The  nests,  if  built  into  the  wall,  are  in  tiers  from  the  bottom  to  the 
top,  the  lowest  bemg  about  three  feet  from  the  ground,  and  a  foot  square. 
If  the  laying-chambers  consist  of  w^ooden  boxes,  they  are  usually  fur- 
nished with  a  ledge,  which  is  very  convenient  for  the  hens  when  rising. 

But  the  best  receptacles  for  the  eggs  are  those  of  basket-work,  as 
they  are  cool  in  summer,  and  can  easily  be  removed  and  washed.  They 
ought  to  be  fastened  not  directly  to  the  w^all,  as  is  generally  the  case, 
but  to  boards  fixed  in  it  by  hooks,  well  clinched,  and  with  a  little  roof 
to  cover  the  rows  of  baskets.  They  will  thus  be  isolated,  to  the  great 
satisfaction  of  the  hen,  which  delights  in  the  absence  of  all  disturbing 
influences  when  laying.  All  the  ranges  of  nests  should  be  placed  cheque- 
wise,  in  order  that  the  inmates,  wdieu  coming  out,  may  not  startle  those 
immediately  under :  those  designed  for  hatching  should  be  near  the 
ground  (where  instinct  teaches  the  hen  to  choose  her  seat),  and  so  ar- 
ranged that  the  hens  can  easily  enter  them  without  disturbing  the  eggs. 

Wheaten  or  rye  straw  is  the  most  approved  material  for  the  bedding, 
being  cooler  than  hay  :  the  hens  are  sometimes  so  tortured  by  lice  as  to 
forsake  their  nests  altogether,  in  an  agony  of  restlessness.  A  Dorking 
housewife  has  assured  us  that  she  once  lost  an  entire  clutch,  from  having, 
as  she  believes,  given  a  bed  of  hay-seeds  to  her  sitting  hen.  The  chicks 
were  all  glued  to  the  shells,  and  thus  destroyed,  owing,  as  she  thinks,  to 
the  high  temperature  occasioned  by  the  fermenting  seeds. 

For  all  purposes  two  cocks  in  a  good  run  are  considered  in  the  poultry 
counties  contiguous  to  London  as  sufficient  for  twelve  or  fourteen  hens, 
but  in  France  they  allow  twenty  mistresses  to  each  cock,  which  no  doubt 
is  on  account  of  the  high  temperature  there.  In  a  confined  yard,  five 
hens  are  sufficient  for  one  cock  in  our  cold  country,  and  a  double  set 
will  not  answer  in  very  limited  space.  When  there  are  two  or  more 
cocks,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  have  them  of  equal  age  or  size,  for 
in  this  case  they  are  always  jealous  and  quarrelsome  ;  if  one  is  decidedly 
ascendant,  the  other  will  never  presume  to  dispute  with  him.  It  will 
be  judicious  also  to  avoid  the  introduction  or  changing  of  cocks  in  the 
breeding  season,  for  the  hens  require  constant  intercourse  with  them, 
and  several  days  frequently  elapse  before  they  become  familiarized  with 


272  DOMESTIC   ANQIALS. 

a  stranger.  The  best  way  is  to  bring  in  the  new  cock  in  the  summer, 
either  as  a  chick,  or  late  in  the  year  in  the  moulting  season,  when  lie 
will  not  take  too  much  notice  of  the  hens.  As  a  general  rule  it  would 
be  well  to  have  one  a  yearling  and  the  other  a  year  older.  In  the  third 
year,  the  cock,  who  then  becomes  lazy  and  excessively  jealous,  should 
be  killed. 

In  selecting  ego-s  for  hatching,  care  should  betaken  that  they  are  not 
at  the  utmost  more  than  a  month  old,  but  their  condition  for  hatching 
will  greatly  depend  upon  the  temperature  of  the  weather :  vitality  con- 
tinues longest  when  the  weather  is  cool. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  the  future  sex  of  the  bird  is  indicated  l)y 
the  shape  of  the  egg;  the  round  producing  the  female,  and  the  oblong 
the  male.  But  this  is  contradicted,  and,  we  believe,  with  sufficient  rea- 
son, and  it  is  impossible  not  only  to  foretell  the  sex,  but  even  to  ascertain 
whether  the  egg  be  fecundated.  This  however  is  certain,  that  if  the 
air-bag  (at  the  obtuse  end),  which  has  been  mistaken  for  the  germ,  and 
the  purpose  of  which  is  to  oxygenate  tlie  blood  of  the  chick,  be  per- 
forated even  in  the  least  conceivable  degree,  the  generating  power  is 
lost  altogether.  Those  eggs  only  which  have  been  fecundated  by  the 
male  are  possessed  of  the  vital  principle.  The  number  of  eggs  for  a  hen 
should  not  exceed  sixteen,  as  she  cannot  impart  the  necessary  warmth 
to  more.  It  is  by  no  means  uncommon  with  experienced  breeders  to 
place  two  hens  on  the  same  day  on  their  respective  eggs,  and  then  on  the 
twenty-first  day  when  the  broods  are  out,  to  give  the  maternal  charge 
of  both  to  one  of  the  hens,  removing  the  other  to  another  set  of  eggs, 
which,  if  she  be  a  steady  setter,  she  will  hatch  as  in  the  first  instance. 
This,  however,  must  be  deemed  a  cruelty,  though  some  hens  would  in- 
stinctively continue  to  sit  until  death.  They  would,  however,  become 
so  attenuated  by  continued  sitting,  as  to  lose  the  power  of  communicat- 
ing to  the  eggs  the  necessary  degree  of  warmth.  Tlie  practice  of  the 
Surry  breeders  is  to  feed  the  hen  on  oats  while  sitting,  as  less  stimu- 
lating than  barley,  which  they  give  to  the  laying  hens  on  account  of 
this  very  quality. 

CAPONIZING. — The  making  of  capons,  that  is,  emasculating  the  males, 
is  practiced  a  little  in  some  of  the  English  counties,  and  very  much  in 
France,  where  the  females  are  also  rendered  incapable  of  breeding,  and 
termed  in  their  unsexed  condition  YK^ulardes,  in  order  to  give  them  the 
tendency  to  fatten.  An  incision  is  made  near  the  parts,  and  through 
this  the  finger  is  introduced  to  take  hold  of  and  bring  away  the  genitals, 
but  so  carefully  as  not  to  injure  the  intestines  :  the  wound  is  then  stiU'hed 
up  and  rubbed  with  oil  or  grease;  and  the  comb  (which  appears  to  be 
an  unnecessary  and  gratuitous  pain  and  insult  to  the  suff'crer)  is  often 
cut  off.  The  females  are  treated  much  in  the  same  way,  when  they  do 
not  promise  well  for  laying,  or  when  they  have  ceased  to  be  fertile  ;  they 
are  deprived  of  the  ovarium.  The  subsequent  treatment  is  similar  to 
that  in  the  former  case.  Care  is  taken  to  give  them  good  food  for  three 
or  four  days,  and  during  that  time  to  keep  them  in  a  place  of  modei'atc 
temperature,  to  avoid  the  danger  of  gangrene,  which,  considering  the 
time  of  the  year — midsummer,  when  the  operation  is  usually  performed 
— is  a  very  probable  consequence.     Pullets  of  the  largest  breed  are 


POULTRY.  273 

selected  for  the  purpose,  as  they  yield  the  greatest  weight  to  the  poul- 
terer;  and  if  employed  in  hatching,  cover  the  greatest  number  of  eggs. 

DISEASES  OF  FOWLS. — Fowls  and  poultry  in  general  are  subject  to 
various  diseases  ;  as,  apoplexy^  diarrhoea,  rheumatism,  the  2yip  or  thrush, 
the  croup  (often  termed  roup),  the  gapes,  inflammation  of  the  tail  gland 
(also  called  the  roup,  though  the  term  is  improperly  applied),  and  other 
diseases  which  are  not  understood.  Great  difficulties  attend  the  treat- 
ment of  poultry  diseases.  Who  attends  to  them  ?  what  complaint  do 
they  make  ?  and  when  they  die,  how  few  persons  acquainted  with  the 
symptoms  before  death  nis^Q  post-mortem  examinations,  and  then  refer 
those  symptoms  to  the  morbid  appearances  which  his  scalpel  reVeals  ? 
The  following  are  the  chief  active  disorders  among  them ;  apoplexy, 
evidenced  by  inflammation  of  the  membranes  of  the  brain,  or  by  effu- 
sion of  blood  within  or  upon  it ;  peritoneal  inflammation,  rapidly  fatal ; 
inflammation  of  the  lungs,  including  the  bronchial  tubes;  tracheal  in- 
flammation (ov  gapes)  with  parasitic  worms  in  the  windpipe;  inflamma- 
tion of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  intestines,  evidenced  by  previous 
dysentery  ;  and  inflammation  or  intumescence  of  the  rump  gland,  symp- 
tomatic of  a  febrile  condition.  But  what  can  be  said  as  to  the  treat- 
ment of  poultry  under  disease?  Very  little.  To  speak  the  truth, 
neither  are  their  diseases  well  understood,  nor  is  the  treatment  of  them 
generally  successful,  A  few  observations  on  particular  complaints  may, 
however,  be  useful. 

Apoplexy  makes  its  attack  in  most  instances  without  the  slightest  pre- 
vious warning.  Could  it  be  known  tliat  a  bird  was  in  danger  of  an 
attack,  means  might  perhaps  be  taken  to  insure  safety.  Aviary  birds, 
in  the  finest  health  apparently,  will  drop  dead  from  their  perch  from 
this  cause.  They  are  often  over-fed  ;  they  have  not  to  exercise  them- 
selves in  the  task  of  seeking  for  food;  they  have  an  allowance  in  un- 
limited measure,  but  have  no  according  measure  of  muscular  exertion  ; 
they  "  do  not  earn  their  bread  before  they  eat  it,"  as  wild  birds  do. 
'■^  Experientia  docetP  The  best  advice  to  give,  as  to  the  means  oi  pre- 
vention, is  to  feed  birds  a  little  in  proportion  to  the  exercise  which  they 
have  the  power  to  take. 

The  Pip,  or  Thrush,  may  be  regarded  as  a  token  of  derangement  of  the 
mucous  membrane  of  the  alimentary  canal  generally,  and  not  as  a  local 
disease  ;  it  is  symptomatic.  Its  cure  will  be  effected  by  low  diet;  that 
is  (in  the  case  of  fowls),  by  an  allowance  of  fresh  vegetable  food,  mixed 
with  potatoes  and  a  little  oatmeal,  granting  at  the  same  time  a  plentiful 
supply  of  pure  water.  Give  of  castor  oil  a  teaspoonful,  or  thereabouts, 
according  to  age  and  strength.  Do  not  scrape  the  tongue,  nor  use 
rough  modes  of  cleaning  it,  but  apply  a  little  borax,  dissolved  in  tinc- 
ture of  myrrh  and  water,  by  means  of  a  camel-hair  pencil,  two  or  three 
times  a  day.  The  symptoms  oi pip  consist  in  a  thickening  of  the  mem- 
brane lining  the  tongue  and  palate,  which  causes  an  obstruction  of  the 
free  inspiration,  and  makes  the  poor  sufferer  gasp  for  breath  ;  the  plu- 
mage becomes  ruffled,  the  bird  mopes  and  pines,  the  appetite  fails,  and 
is  at  last  utterly  extinguished,  the  bird  at  length  dying,  worn  out  by 
fever  and  starvation. 

Gapes  (Inflammation  of  the  Trachea)  is  a  very  fatal  disease,  to  which  all 
12* 


274  DOMESTIC   AJ^IMALS. 

our  domestic  gallinaceous  birds,  as  well  as  pheasants  and  partridges,  are 
subject,  and  which  often  occasions  great  mortality.  In  the  first  in- 
stance it  appears  to  arise  from  a  croupy  or  catarrhal  affection,  which  is 
indicated  by  running  at  the  nostrils,  watery  eyes,  alteration  of  voice, 
and  loss  of  appetite  and  spirits.  The  bird  dies.  If  the  trachea  be 
examined,  it  will  be  found  replete  with  narrow  worms,  about  half  an 
inch  in  length,  imbedded  in  slimy  mucus.  This  singular  worm  is  the 
Syngamus  trachealis,  or  Distotna  lineare.  It  consists  of  a  long  and  a 
short  body  united  together;  the  long  body  is  the  female,  the  short  body 
the  male  ;  each,  were  it  not  that  they  are  permanently  united  together, 
beino-  an  animal  distinct  and  perfect  in  itself.  Whether  these  parasitic 
worms  are  the  cause  or  consequence  of  the  disease,  we  pretend  not  to 
say,  nor  can  we  tell  how  they  become  introduced  into  the  trachea ;  this, 
however,  seems  to  be  certain,  that  their  removal  is  requisite  to  give  the 
feathered  patient  a  chance  of  recovery.  This  can  be  done  by  means  of  a 
feather,  neatly  trimmed,  which  is  to  be  introduced  into  the  windpipe, 
and  turned  round  once  or  twice,  and  then  drawn  out.  It  will  dislodge 
the  worms,  and  bring  back  many  of  them  adhering  with  slime  unto  it. 
This  plan  requires  great  dexterity,  and  some  knowledge  of  the  anatomy 
of  the  parts ;  a  slow,  unskillful  operator  may  kill  the  already  half-suffo- 
cated bird,  instead  of  curing  it.  Another  mode  of  destroying  these 
worms  is,  by  putting  the  birds  in  a  box,  and  making  them  inhale  the 
fames  of  tobacco,  thrown  into  it  through  the  stalk  of  a  tobacco-pipe. 
Some  recommend  the  forcing  of  tobacco-smoke  down  the  bird's  throat, 
and  others  that  the  mouth  be  crammed  with  snuff;  while  many  place 
faith  in  the  efficacy  of  a  pinch  of  salt,  introduced  into  the  back  part  of 
the  mouth.  Something  like  a  scientific  mode  of  treatment  may,  how- 
ever, be  suggested.  Give  a  grain  of  calomel,  made  up  with  bread  into 
a  pill,  or  two  or  three  grains  of  Plummer's  pill  {pil.  hydr.  submit?'  co., 
London  Pharmacopoeia) ;  after  which  let  flour  of  sulphur  be  adminis- 
tered, with  a  little  ginger,  in  pultaceous  food  composed  of  barley-meal. 
In  the  mean  time  let  the  bird  be  kept  in  a  dry  warm  shed  or  room, 
apart  from  the  rest  of  the  fowls,  as  the  disease  may  be  infectious.  Let 
the  mouth  and  beak  be  washed  with  a  weak  solution  of  chloride  of 
lime.  A  correspondent,  who  dates  his  letter  from  Wootton,  Christ- 
church,  speaks  of  turpentine  as  the  only  remedy  on  which  to  depend. 
His  words  are:  "Haifa  teaspoonful  of  spirits  of  turpentine,  mixed 
with  a  handful  of  grain,  is  a  certain  cure  in  a  few  days,  giving  a  hand- 
ful of  such  grain  to  a  couple  of  dozen  young  chicks  each  day.  It  is  the 
most  perfect  and  unfailing  remedy.  I  communicated  this  receipt  to  the 
'Gardeners'  Chronicle'  (No.  xxix.,  July  17,  1847,  p.  476),  and  I  under- 
stand it  has  been  found  by  other  persons  besides  myself  to  be  successful 
— perfectly  so.  In  this  part  of  England  it  is  the  only  disease  of  chick- 
ens ;  and  for  two  seasons  the  number  that  died  of  it  was  very  great." 
The  rationale  of  this  mode  of  treatment  is  as  follows : — the  turpentine 
is  absorbed  into  the  system,  and  so  brought  into  contact  with  the  para- 
sitic worms  in  the  windpipe,  to  which  it  is  speedily  fatal ;  they  are  then 
ejected  with  the  mucus;  and  the  cause  of  irritation  being  thus  removed, 
the  bird  speedily  recovers.  Wet,  ill-feeding,  an  ill-ventilated  fowl- 
house,  confinement  on  a  spot  or  plot  of  ground  tenanted  year  after  year 


POULTRY.  275 

by  fowls,  witlioiit  attention  to  cleanliness,  to  renovation  of  the  soil,  and 
a  proper  allowance  of  grave!,  ashes,  fresh  vegetables,  etc. ;  these  are  the 
causes  which  produce  this  and  many  other  diseases.  The  gapes  is  an 
epidemic  disease,  which  often  thins  the  preserves  of  pheasants  and  the 
coveys  of  partridges. 

Inflammation  of  the  Lungs,  including  the  bronchial  tubes,  is  not  un- 
common. Its  symptoms  are  quick  breathing,  often  with  a  rattle  or  rale 
very  audible,  dullness,  disorder  of  plumage,  vacancy  in  the  eye,  and  in- 
disposition to  stir.  In  this,  death  can  hardly  be  prevented.  Human 
patients  can  explain  their  feelings — cattle,  to  a  certain  degree,  indicate 
tJiem,  and  speak  in  dumb  eloquence;  but  birds  give  little  indication,  by 
voice  or  manner,  leading  to  what  the  medical  man  calls  diagnosis.  The 
persevering  use  of  cod-liver  oil  will  give  relief,  and  even  effect  a  tem- 
porary, or  at  any  rate  an  apparent  cure ;  but  who  would  like  to  breed 
from  the  bird. 

Peritoneal  Indammation,  or  Peritonitis. — This  disease  runs  so  rapid  a 

course,  that  death  not  unfrequently  occurs  before  any  marked  symptoms 
have  appeared  indicative  of  active  disease.  The  bird  perhaps  appears 
a  little  drooping — it  refuses  to  eat;  but  as  it  is  highly  fed,  this  circum- 
stance occasions  no  surprise ;  it  retires  to  its  roost,  and  is  found  dead  in 
the  morning.  Examination  at  once  reveals  the  cause  of  death — the  peri- 
toneal membrane  exhibits  all  the  indications  of  active  inflammation. 
We  have  noticed  the  occurrence  of  the  same  disease  among  c  in  ivorous 
mammalia.  An  animal  appears  to  be  as  well  as  usual — at  least  it  at- 
tracts no  observation — but  it  dies  suddenly.  On  opening  the  body,  the 
cause  is  manifest — Peritonitis  has  done  its  work. 

Inflammation  of  the  Mucous  Membrane  of  the  Intestinal  Canal  is  usually 

evinced  by  dysentery.  The  bird  pines;  it  is  purged  ;  in  a  little  time  the 
evacuations  become  more  or  less  tinged  with  blood,  and  death  ensues. 
Damp  and  improper  food  are  the  causes  of  this  affection.  It  can 
be  treated  with  success  only  in  the  early  stage.  First  give  a  small 
quantity  of  castor-oil.  This  will  clear  the  bowels  of  irritating  secretion. 
Afterward  let  the  bird  have  doses  of  the  Hydrargyrum  cum  creta,  (of 
the  London  Pharmacopoeia),  rhubarb,  and  laudanum  : — of  the  hydrargy- 
rum cum  creta,  three  grains  ;  rhubarb,  two  or  three  grains  ;  laudanum, 
two,  three,  or  four  drops.  Mix  in  a  teaspoonful  of  gruel  or  gum-water. 
To  be  given  every  alternate  day  for  a  fortnight. 

Simple  Biarrlicea  may  be  generally  cured  by  a  change  of  diet,  and  a 
little  chalk  given  in  gruel. 

Constipalion  of  the  Bowels  will  yield  to  castor-oil,  and  a  diet  upon 
oatmeal  porridge  and  green  vegetables. 

Asthma. — Both  fowls  and  pigeons  are  affected  with  this  complaint^ 
wdiicli  is  evidenced  by  difficulty  of  breathing  and  a  wheezing,  rattling 
noise  on  inspiration.  It  is  the  result  of  a  thickening  of  the  bronchial 
tubes  from  previous  inflammation,  often  accompanied  by  an  alteration 
in  the  structure  of  the  cellular  tissue  of  a  portion  of  the  lungs.  There 
appears  to  be  no  rational  plan  of  treatment  likely  to  effect  a  cure. 

Inflammation  and  Intumescence  of  the  Rump  Gland  is  generally  symp- 
tomatic of  a  febrile  condition  of  the  system.  To  this  affection  the  term 
roup  (an  indefiinite  term  for  all  the  diseases  of  poultry)  is  often  applied. 


276  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

The  treatment  is  simple.  Let  the  swelling  be  opened  by  a  lancet,  and 
the  matter  gently  squeezed  out;  afterward  foment  well  with  warm 
water ;  put  the  bird  upon  a  diet  of  oatmeal  and  green  vegetables,  and, 
if  necessary,  give  a  teaspoonful  of  castor-oil.  Be  sure  that  the  roosting- 
place  is  clean  and  well  ventilated. 

Moultifig. — This  process  is  natural,  and  consists  in  the  gradual  exchange 
of  old  feathers  for  new  ones.  Nevertheless  it  often  happens  that  birds 
in  a  state  of  domestication  have  not  sufficient  vital  energy  for  the 
accomplishment  of  the  change.  They  require  improved  diet,  warmth, 
and  good  water.  Of  course  their  roosting-place  must  be  properly  sheltered 
and  ventilated.  A  grain  or  two  of  cayenne  pepper,  made  into  a  pill  with 
bread,  may  be  given  daily  with  advantage.  Safifron  is  useless ;  but  a  nail, 
or  any  bit  of  iron  may  be  put  into  the  drinking-trough,  in  order  to  render 
the  water  chalybeate. 

Fowls  are  subject  to  a  loss  of  feathers,  which  must  not  be  confounded 
with  moulting.  At  first  the  plumage  appears  ruffled  and  disarranged  ; 
then  the  feathers  begin  to  drop  out;  and  continue  to  fall  till  the  bird  is 
greatly  denuded.  In  the  mean  time  it  is  dull  and  destitute  of  appetite, 
and  becomes  thin  and  feeble.  This  disease  is  most  common  among 
poultry  kept  in  a  limited  space,  debarred  from  exercise  and  fresh  air, 
with  a  wet  soil  beneath  them,  having  little  or  no  gravel,  nor  any  dust- 
ing-place in  which  to  clean  their  plumage  :  it  is  analogous  to  the  mange 
in  cattle,  and  is  not  easily  cured.  A  change  of  diet,  good  air,  cleanliness, 
and  a  dusting-place  (or,  as  some  call  it,  a  dust-bath),  are  essential.  Some 
recommend  small  quantities  of  sulphur  and  nitre  mixed  with  butter  to 
be  daily  given. 

As  the  successful  treatment  of  diseases  may  sometimes  depend  on 
promptitude,  it  may  be  useful  for  every  poultry-keeper  to  have  a  con- 
venient supply  of  a  few  simple  medicines.  The  following  may  be  named 
as  rather  suggestive  than  complete  : — 1.  jalap,  in  fifteen-grain  powders; 
2.  hydr.  cum  creta,  in  three  and  five-grain  doses ;  3.  cod-liver  oil ; 
4.  cocoa-nut  oil ;  5.  flour  of  brimstone  ;  6.  Baily's  roup  pills. 

In  cases  where  inflammation  is  suspected,  the  hydr.  cum  creta  is 
pronounced  by  the  best  judges  to  be  a  valuable  medicine.  To  a  grown 
fowl  five  grains,  with  from  five  to  fifteen  grains  of  jalap  (according  to 
the  strength  of  the  dose  rcquire<l),  may  be  given.  Jalap  is  a  very  good 
poultry  medicine.  Cocoa-nut  oil  and  flour  of  brimstone  make  perhaps 
the  best  ointment  for  white  comb,  and  one  which  is  less  disfiguring  to 
the  plumage  than  turmeric.  Baily's  roup  pills  are  almost  universally 
known  and  appreciated. 

SIIIPPLXG  POULTRY  AND  EGGS.— Messrs.  Charles  R.  Huntington  &  Co., 
produce  commission  merchants  in  New  York,  give  the  following  direc- 
tions as  to  slaughtering  and  shipping  poultry  and  eggs  : — 

Food  in  the  crop  injures  the  appearance,  is  liable  to  sour,  and  pur- 
chasers object  to  this  worse  than  useless  weight :  therefore  keep  from 
food  twenty-four  hours  before  killing.  Opening  the  veins  in  the  neck  is 
the  best  mode  of  killing.  If  the  he'ad  be  taken  off"  at  first,  the  skin  will 
recede  from  the  neck-bone,  presenting  a  repulsive  appearance.  Most 
of  the  poultry  sent  to  this  market  is  "scalded"  "or  wet-picked,"  but 
"dry-picked"  is  preferred  by  a  few,  and  sells,  to  a  limited  extent  only, 


roui/iKY.  277 

at  good  prices.  Poultry  may  be  picked  dry  without  difficulty,  if  done 
immediately  after  killing.  For  scalding  poultry,  the  water  should  be  as 
near  the  boiling  point  as  possible,  without  actually  boiling ;  the  bird, 
held  by  the  legs,  should  be  immersed  and  lifted  up  and  down  in  the 
water,  three  times — the  motion  helps  the  hot  water  to  penetrate  the 
plumage,  and  take  proper  effect  upon  the  skin.  Continue  to  hold  the 
bird  by  the  legs  with  one  hand,  while  plucking  the  feathers  with  the 
other  without  a  moment's  delay  after  taking  out — if  skillfully  handled 
in  this  way,  the  feathers  and  pin-feathers  may  all  be  removed  without 
breaking  the  skin.  A  torn  or  broken  skin  greatly  injures  the  appear- 
ance, and  the  price  will  be  low  in  proportion.  The  intestines  or  the  crop 
should  not  be  "drawn."  After  removing  the  feathers,  the  head  may  be 
taken  off  and  the  skin  drawn  over  the  neck-bone  and  tied  ;  it  should 
next  be  "plumped"  by  being  dipped  into  water,  nearly  or  quite  boiling 
hot,  and  then  at  once  into  cold  water  about  the  same  length  of  time. 
Some  think  the  hot  plunge  sufficient  without  the  cold.  It  should  be 
entirely  cold  but  not  frozen  before  being  packed.  If  it  reaches  market 
without  freezing  it  will  sell  all  the  better.  In  packing,  when  practicable, 
use  clean  hand-threshed  rye-straw;  ir  this  cannot  be  had,  wheat  or  oat 
straw  will  answer,  but  be  sure  that  it  is  clean  and  free  from  dust  of  any 
kind.  Place  a  layer  of  straw  at  the  bottom,  then  alternate  layers  of 
poultry  and  straw,  taking  care  to  stow  snugly,  back  upAvard,  legs  under 
the  body,  filling  vacancies  with  straw,  and  filling  the  packages  so  that 
the  cover  will  draw  down  very  snugly  upon  the  contents,  so  as  to  prevent 
shifting  or  shucking  on  the  way.  Boxes  are  the  best  packages,  and 
should  contain  from  one  hundred  and  fifty  to  three  hundred.  Large  boxes 
are  inconvenient,  and  more  apt  to  get  injured.  Number  the  packages, 
mark  the  contents,  the  gi-oss  weight,  and  the  tare  of  each  on  the  cover  ; 
mark  plainly  to  our  address,  plaeino;  your  own  initials  also  on  the  pack- 
age, and  send  invoice  and  railroad  receipt  by  mail,  to  avoid  errors  or 
delay  in  reporting  sales. 

Eg?S  reqtiire  special  care  in  packing.  First — secure  strong  and 
substantial  barrels,  either  good  second-hand  barrels,  or  new  split-stave 
oak  ones.  Commence  by  putting  a  smalJ  quantity  of  clean  wheat  or  oat 
straw  at  the  bottom  of  the  barrel ;  cover  this  with  dry,  sound  oats,  as 
clean,  bright,  and  as  free  from  dust  as  you  can  get  them,  say  about 
two  inches  of  uniform  depth.  Then  pack  eggs  on  the  side,  leaving  a 
space  of  three-quarters  of  an  inch  between  the  outside  tier  and  the 
staves;  fill  up  the  layers  by  making  regular  tiers.  Carefully  avoid  pack- 
ing so  close  together  as  to  crowd  them.  Use  plenty  of  oats,  and  shake 
the  barrel  well  after  covering  each  layer  with  oats.  Leave  a  space  of  , 
about  three  inches  at  the  top,  and  cover  the  top  layer  of  eggs  with  about 
two  inches'  depth  of  oats.  Cut,  of  brown  paper,  a  circle  sheet  that  will 
just  fit  the  barrel,  and  lay  it  on  the  oats.  Then  put  on  this  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  wheat  or  oat  straw,  or  dry  hay,  to  require  a  strong  pressure 
to  get  the  head  into  the  crozen.  Examine  eggs  closely,  and  be  particular 
in  counting.  Always  mark  the  quantity  of  eggs  in  dozens,  and  the 
number  of  bushels  of  oats  contained  in  each  barrel  upon  the  head,  and 
also  upon  the  side  of  each  barrel,  with  the  initials  of  your  name  or  firm. 
Eggs  packed  in  this  manner  will  command  ready  sale  in  this  city,  at  the 

50 


278 


DOMESTIC    AJS^IMALS. 


current  market  price,  without  any  deduction  for  broken  or  rotten  eg^s, 
at  all  times.  In  order  to  avoid  claims  for  rotten  eggs  it  is  desirable  to 
ship  frequently. 


lUK  Mi.vicr.-srAN 


BEES: 


HABITS   AND    MANAGEMENT. 


THE   BEE.  281 

SEES. 

TIIEIE  HABITS  AND  MANAGEMENT. 

THREE  CLASSES  OF  BEES.— The  Queen  Bee  is  the  sovereign,  and  lit- 
erally the  prolific  parent  of  all  her  subjects.     She  is  the  sole  monarch. 
Her  body  is  longer,  larger,  and  more  pointed  than  that  of 
the  others,  and  her  wings  are  much  shorter  than  theirs, 
hardly  reaching  beyond  her  middle,  whereas  those  of  the 
others  cover  the  entire  body  ;  her  belly  and  legs  are  of  a 
deep  golden  color,  and  the  latter  are  not  furnished  with 
the  little  brushes  which  those  of  the  workers  have,  to  help 
them  in  collecting  the  floury  matter  which  they  require  for 
making  honey. 
Anecdote  of  two  Queen  Bees. — The  queen  bears  no  rival  authority.    If 
there  should  be  a  second  queen,  she  is  either  sent  forth  with  an  attend- 
ant swarm  of  colonists,  or  put  to  death  by  the  other  bees. 

Huber  gives  an  account  of  a  duel  between  two  queens,  w^ho,  issuing 
from  their  nurseries  in  the  same  hive,  rushed  into  deadly  conflict,  catch- 
ing each  other  with  the  teeth.  As  if  they  dreaded  the  fatal  conse- 
quences to  themselves,  which  would  follow  from  unsheathing  their 
darts,  they  had  the  prudence  to  separate  at  the  height  of  their  fury 
and  fly  away.  But  the  other  bees  compelled  them  to  decide  the  point 
of  sovereignty  on  the  spot,  and  then  forced  them  to  the  contest  again. 
This  was  done  repeatedly,  after  intervals  of  breathing  time,  until  the 
stronger  of  the  two,  seizing  the  other  by  the  wing,  stabbed  her  to 
death. 

The  queen-bee  commences  depositing  her  eggs  when  about  fiv^e  days 
old;  during  the  lieat  of  the  season  she  lays  from  one  hundred  and  fifty 
to  two  hundred  eggs  per  day,  and  lays  with  little  or  no  intermission 
from  early  spring  to  the  middle  of  autumn. 

Drones. — The  second  class  of  bees  are  the  drones.  They  are  bulkier 
in  the  body  than  either  the  queen  or  the  w^orking-bee. 
Their  head  is  rounder,  proboscis  shorter,  eyes  fuller,  an 
additional  articulation  to  the  antennae,  and  no  sting.  They 
also  make  more  noise  in  flying  than  the  other  bees.  The 
drones  are  the  males  of  the  hive  ;  by  them  the  royal 
mother  is  impregnated  and  her  eggs  fertilized.  How  or 
when  this  intercourse  takes  place  has  long  furnished  phi- 
losophers with  a  subject  for  controversy  and  inquiry  ; 
and  it  has  not  even  yet  been  set  at  rest  in  such  a  manner  as  to  admit 
being  proved  to  a  positive  demonstration. 

The  drones  form  about  a  tenth  part  of  the  population  of  a  hive. 
They  are  certainly  idle  and  lazy,  as  are  the  husbands  of  other  queens; 
yet  they  fulfill  the  objects  of  their  creation.  They  cannot  collect  honey, 
for  they  have  not  the  necessary  organs  for  the  purpose  ;  their  teeth  are 
too  little  and  too  short  for  breaking  off"  the  ca})«ules,  their  mouths  are 
not  well  formed  for  sucking  the  sweets  of  flowers;  and  their  legs  have 
not  those  brushes  or  powder-putfs  which  enable  the  other  to  bring  home 


282  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

the  farina  wanted  for  making  wax.  During  the  summer  thev  find  food 
for  themselves,  and  pass  their  time  in  lounging  from  flower  to  flower,  and 
they  are  not  found  in  the  hive  during  the  winter.  By  an  extraordinary 
instinct,  they  are  massacred  without  pity  by  the  females  before  this 
period,  in  order  to  save  the  winter  stock  of  honey,  until  they  have 
departed  voluntarily  to  some  nook  where  they  may  rest  until  wanted 
in  the  next  spring.     These  poor  things  have  no  weapons  of  defense. 

Working  Bee.— The  third  class  is  the  working  bee.  The  working 
bee.  is  considerably  less  than  either  the  queen  bee  or  the  drone.  It  is 
about  half  an  inch  in  length,  of  a  blackish  brown  color, 
covered  with  closely  set  hairs  all  over  the  body,  which  aid 
it  in  carrying  the  farina  it  gathers  from  the  flowers ;  and 
on  the  tibia^  or  forearm,  as  it  were,  of  the  hind  leg,  is  a 
cavity  of  cup-like  form,  for  the  reception  of  the  kneaded 
little' ball  of  pollen.  It  is  the  working  bee  which  collects 
honey  and  pollen,  and  which  forms  the  cells,  cleans  out  the 
hive,  protects  the  queen,  looks  after  the  condition  of  the  young  brood, 
destroys  or  expels  the  drones,  when  these  are  no  longer  necessary  to 
the  well-being  of  the  community ;  who,  in  short,  performs  all  the  offices 
connected  with  the  hive  and  its  contents,  save  only  those  which  have 
reference  to  the  reproduction  of  the  species.  The  working  bees  are  of 
no  sex,  and  are  furnished  with  a  horny  and  hollow  sting,  through  which 
poison  is  ejected  into  the  wound  it  makes;  this  poison  is  of  an  acrid 
character,  and  of  great  power  in  its  effects,  pi'oving  fatal  to  any  insect, 
and  instances  are  on  record  of  its  proving  so  to  horses  and  cattle,  nay, 
even  to  human  beings  :  when  human  beings,  however,  are  stung  (an 
accident  that  will  h:ii)pen  very  seldom,  if  they  use  the  precautions  in 
manipulating  with  their  bees,  that  shall  be  detailed  in  the  course  of  this 
volume),  they  can  instantaneously  obtain  relief  by  pressing  upon  the 
point  stung  with  the  tube  of  a  key  ;  this  will  extract  the  sting  and  re- 
lieve the  pain,  and  the  application  of  cf)mmon  spirits  of  hartshorn  will 
instantaneously  remove  it ;  the  poison  being  of  an  acid  nature,  and  being 
thus  at  once  neutralized  by  the  application  of  this  penetrating  and  vola- 

'  VoBEIlFUL  INSTINCTS  AND  CONTRIVANCES  OF  BEES.— The  contriv- 
ances of  bees  in  the  construction  of  their  combs  are  amongst  the  most 
wonderful  works  of  God,  as  regards  insect  creation.  "The  form  of  the 
comb  is  in  every  country  the  same,  the  proportions  accurately  alike,  the 
size  the  same,  to  the  fraction  of  a  line — go  where  you  will,  and  the 
form  is  proved  to  be  that  which  the  most  refined  analysis  has  eiuibled 
mathematicians  to  discover,  as  of  all  others  the  best  adapted  for  the 
purpose  of  saving  room,  work,  and  materials.  This  discovery  was  only 
made  about  a  century  ago;  nay,  the  instrument  that  enabled  us  to  find 
it  out  was  unknown  for  half  a  century  before  that  application  of  its 
powers.  And  yet  the  bee  has  been  for  thousands  of  years,  in  all  coun- 
tries, unerrinoly  working  according  to  a  fixed  rule,  which  no  one  l>ftd 
discovered  until  the  eigliteenth  century." 

We  may  instance  among  other  surprising  illustrations  of  the  ingenu- 
ity of  these  wonderful  creatures,  that  they  lay  the  foundations  of  their 
cities  at  the  top  of  the  hive,  and  build  downward.     They  have  straight 


THE   BEE.  283 

passages,  or  lanes,  across  their  different  dwelling-places,  wide  enough  for 
two  bees  to  pass. 

ADVAMAIJES  OP  KEEPING  BEES.— It  is  strange,  that  though  the  ex- 
pense of  establishing  stocks  of  bees,  where  there  is  a  garden,  is  so  trivial, 
and  the  possible  gain  so  great,  few  people  take  the  trouble  of  keeping 
them.  Country  cottagers  too  generally  neglect  to  take  advantage  even 
of  an  adjoining  common  or  lonely  garden,  which  specially  invite  to  bee- 
keeping. Where  cottage  gardens  are  very  small  and  crowded,  and 
multitudes  of  children  swarm,  it  is  certainly  difficult,  if  not  dangerous, 
to  introduce  tens  of  thousands  of  bees,  with  their  formidable  stings  ;  but 
in  numberless  instances  where  bee-husbandry  is  neglected,  it  might  be 
pursued  with  some  profit. 

No  farmer,  nor  even  humble  cottager,  who  has  a  patch  of  garden, 
and  lives  near  commons,  heath-covered  hills,  or  woods,  should  be  with- 
out hives,  as  the  great  supply  of  bees'  food  is  obtained  by  their  own 
exertions.  It  is  not  the  rarest  and  most  beautiful  flowers  which  afford 
the  best  honey,  but  those  which  abound  in  the  open  fields  as  well  as  in 
the  garden ;  the  Howers  of  mountain  heath,  clover,  trefoil,  beans, 
vetches,  wild  thyme,  turnips  and  cabbages,  privet,  elder,  bramble,  rue, 
and,  above  all,  the  blossoms  of  the  common  furze,  are  among  the  best 
materials  for  honey.  The  cost  of  ibod  is  scarcely  any  thing,  and  the  re- 
turn may  be  considered  clear  gain. 

The  trouble  of  rearing  bees,  compared  with  the  pleasure  or  the  profit, 
is  nothing. 

MANAGEMENT  OF  BEES.— To  him  who  is  about  engaging  in  bee-keep- 
ing, the  first  question  of  interest  is,  how  to  select  his  stock.  As  a  rule, 
the  spring  is  the  best  season  to  purchase  a  stock  of  bees,  as  they  have 
then  passed  the  casualties  of  the  winter;  and  the  question  of  profit,  so 
far  as  the  first  year  is  concerned,  is  quite  clear,  if  the  swarms  are  judi- 
ciously chosen.  Their  value  depends  upon  the  health  and  number  of 
bees,  and  the  time  they  have  occupied  the  hive.  The  number  in  a 
colony  can  be  judged  of  with  comparative  accuracy  by  raising  the  hives 
and  examining  them,  or  by  the  hum  produced  on  giving  them  slight 
taps;  and  by  the  weight,  as  shown  either  by  lifting  or  weighing.  The 
age  of  a  swarm  is  told  by  the  color  of  the  comb;  in  new  swarms  the 
color  being  white,  and  varying  from  that  to  nearly  black,  in  very  old 
swarms.  The  brood  combs  grow  thicker  with  age,  and  the  cells  and  the 
bees  hatched  in  them  are  therefore  smaller,  and  the  latter  feebler.  It  is 
poor  economy  to  purchase  a  colony  more  than  two  years  old. 

Transporting  Bees. — Let  the  hive  be  placed  on  a  cloth,  the  ends  of 
which  must  be  carefully  tied  over  the  top;  if  it  is  to  be  taken  to  a 
distance,  the  hive  so  tied  up  may  be  swung  on  a  pole  fastened  across  a 
cart  from  side  to  side;  this  prevents  the  jolting  to  which  it  might 
otherwise  be  subject,  which  would  disturb  the  bees,  and  probably  shake 
down  the  comb.  When  arrived  at  its  destination,  let  the  hive  be  placed 
oo^he  stand,  and  if  any  of  the  bees  have  fallen  out  on  the  cloth,  place 
them  near  the  entrance,  and  they  will  soon  find  their  way  in. 

SPRING  MANAGE  11  liNT. — As  soon  as  the  weather  is  fine  examine  your 
hives  by  lifting  them  carefully  from  the  stand.  Clear  away  all  the  dead 
bees  and  refuse  matters  which  have  collected  during  the  winter.     Rub 


284 


DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 


the  moiildiness  and  damp  from  the  floor-board,  and  let  it  be  well  dried. 
The  bottoms  of  the  combs  often  become  mouldy  in  the  winter,  especi- 
ally in  light  stocks,  and  it  will  be  a  good  thing  to  cut  off  the  lower 
portions,  which  may  be  done  with  a  table-knife,  and  without  danger,  by 
turning  the  hive  on  one  side,  in  the  evening  or  early  in  the  morning,  or 
at  any  time,  if  you  take  the  precaution  of  wearing  a  bee-dress,  here- 
after described.  The  bees  will  soon  renew  the  combs,  and  their  health 
will  be  improved  by  the  removal  of  the  decayed  portions. 

Feeding. — Many  swarms  die  in  spring  for  want  of  food,  and  ihe  wise 
apiarian  will  therefore  feed  his  bees  liberally,  bearing  in  mind  that  what 
he  gives  them  is  not  lost,  as  they  can  fully  store  for  their  owners'  use 
what  is  not  needed  for  their  own  support. 

Begin  to  feed  the  light  stocks ;  a  liberal  supply  of  food  will  be  amply 
repaid  by  the  consequent  health  and  vigor  of  your  bees,  and  the  abund- 
ant store  they  will  collect  for  your  future  benefit.  And  do  not  prema- 
turely encourage  the  bees  to  go  in  search  of  food,  but  rather  confine 
them  to  their  homes.  Guard  against  the  admission  of  stranger  bees 
while  yours  are  feeding.  Give  honey  now,  if  you  can,  rather  than 
syrup,  as  it  forms  a  better  ingredient  than  sugar  in  the  jelly  which  sup- 
ports the  young  brood. 

The  consumption  of  food  in  a  hive  is  now  perhaps  greater  than  at 
any  period  of  the  year.  The  queen  lays  from  one  hundred  to  two 
hundred  eggs  daily,  and  the  increase  of  the  brood  is  so  prodigious,  that 
it  is  impossible  for  any  except  a  Avell-stored  hive  to  meet  the  demand 
for  food.  Many  persons  wonder  that  their  bees  die  in  the  spring,  when 
they  have  surviv^ed  the  winter;  but  the  food  consumed  during  the  cold 
weather  is  comparatively  very  small  to  what  it  is  during  breeding  time. 
On  this  ground,  then,  feed  abundantly  all  the  stocks,  but  especially  the 
light  ones. 

Feeding  outside  the  hive,  by  placing  food  at  the  entrance,  is  a  bad 
method,  as  stranger  bees  are  attracted,  which  deprive  your  bees  of  a 
proportion  of  that  which  you  have  provided  for  them.  Feeding  at  the 
bottom  disturbs  the  bees,  lowers  the  temperature  of  the  hive  when  the 
food  is  introduced,  and  thus  occasions  loss  of  life;  therefore,  to  obviate 
these  evils,  ingenious  feeding-pans  have  been  invented  for  supplying  food 
at  the  top  of  the  hive. 

The  following  directions  for  feeding  bees  are  from  "The  Bee-Keepers* 

Chart:"  "Before  feeding 
is  commenced  the  hives 
should  be  set  down  upon 
the  floors  and  the  entrances 
for  the  bees  so  closed  as 
to  admit  only  one  or  two 
at  a  time.  Two  or  three 
inch  auger  holes  may  be 
bored  in  the  top,  and 
piiELPs'8  BEE-FEEDEE.  thc  fccdcr  placcd  by  the 

side  of  them  and  covered 
with  a  small  box,  and  this  covered  with  an  old  carpet  to  pi'cvent  other 
bees   from   scenting   the   feed."     Phelps's  Bee-Feeder  is   thus  figured 


THE    BEE.  285 

and  described,  and  it  may  lead  the  ingenious  to  adopt  it  on  a  better 
plan  : 

"  It  consists  of  a  tin  pan,  or  tray,  placed  in  a  wooden  box,  with  a 
float  to  fit,  and  a  tin  tube  passes  through  the  float  and  is  secured  to  it 
on  the  under  side.  The  float  may  be  raised  at  any  time,  even  if  it  is 
covered  with  bees,  by  means  of  the  tube,  and  the  syrup  poured  into  the 
pan  through  the  tube  by  inserting  a  funnel  in  the  top  of  it.  The  float 
supports  tiie  bees  and  prevents  them  from  getting  into  the  syrup,  and 
as  they  consume  the  syrup  it  settles  down  with  them.  A  piece  of  wood 
across  the  top  of  the  box,  with  a  hole  for  the  tube,  keeps  it  in  its  place, 
and  a  pane  of  glass  on  each  side  of  this  confines  the  bees,  and  aftbrds  an 
opportunity  to  observe  their  operations  while  feeding." 

The  same  author  recommends  the  following  compositions  for  feeding 
bees : 

First:  two  pounds  West  India  or  Orleans  sugar;  three  gills  ale;  one 
gill  Malaga  wine  ;  (if  the  ale  and  wine  cannot  be  had,  use  sap  or  water,) 
one  teaspoonful  fine  salt.  Mix  together  in  a  tin  or  copper  vessel ;  set 
it  over  a  slow  fire;  stir  occasionally  until  it  arrives  to  a  boiling  point; 
set  it  off",  and  let  it  cool,  remove  the  scum,  and  it  is  fit  for  use. 

Second:  one  gallon  (or  twelve  pounds)  of  West  India  or  any  other 
honey;  four  pounds  West  India  or  Orleans  sugar;  one  gallon  maple 
sap  or  water;  half  a  pint  ale;  two  tablespoonsfuls  fine  salt.  Heat  and 
mix  as  above.  This  composition  may  be  made  without  the  ale  by  using 
water. 

It  is  however  doubted  by  some  experienced  bee-keepers,  whether  the 
general  feeding  of  bees  is,  upon  the  whole  profitable.  It  is  argued  that 
while  it  is  wise  to  feed  bees  that  have  not  sufiicient  food  to  keep  thera 
alive,  any  thing  given  them  beyond  that  is  unprofitable,  and  produces 
an  inferior  article  of  honey,  if  any  thing  but  pure  honey  be  fed.  The 
following  is  Mr.  Eddy's  argument: 

"The  theory  of  feeding  bees  on  a  large  scale  has  had  its  day.  It  has 
presented  splendid  results  for  a  time,  and  resulted  at  length  in  splendid 
failures.  Cheap  honey,  or  a  composition,  has  been  used,  and  the  bees 
have  been  fed  freely,  under  the  impression  that  whatever  they  stored  in 
their  cells  must  of  course  be  honey  of  the  first  quality.  I  would  ask 
why  Cuba  or  Southern  honey  is  not  made  of  the  first  quality  when  it  is 
stored  up  for  the  first  time  in  Cuba  or  Florida,  if  bees  have  the  power 
of  converting  an  inferior  article  into  one  of  superior  quality.  The  true 
reason  is,  that  much  of  this  so-called  honey  is  taken  from  the  sugar 
plantations,  or  from  flownn-s  which  do  not  furnish  the  best  honey.  And 
the  second  transportation,  although  done  by  "Yankee"  bees,  does  not 
produce  any  chemical  change  in  the  article  which  is  fed.  Honey  is 
gathered,  not  made  by  the  bees.  Those  who  purchase  in  market  Cuba 
honey  which  is  packed  up  in  "Yankee"  boxes,  do  not  get  the  best  end 
of  the  bargain.  They  have  yet  to  learn  that  the  packing  or  transpor- 
tation does  not  make  it  the  fine-flavored  and  wholesome  article  which 
is  found  in  white  clover  upon  all  our  hills  in  New  England.  The  feed- 
ing of  the  bees  on  a  large  scale,  or  with  a  view  to  secure  larger  quan- 
tities of  surplus  honey,  operates  unfavorably  upon  the  bees  in  a  variety 
of  ways,  and  the  principal  objections  to  it  are  the  following;   1.  There 


286  DOMESTIC   ANLMALS. 

is  no  profit  in  it.  No  man  gets  the  quantity  of  honey  which  he  feeds. 
2.  It  prevents  the  bees  from  cooing  abroad  to  gather  honey  from  the 
fields.  3.  If  the  bees  are  fed  liberally  late  in  the  fall  and  early  in  the 
spring,  there  will  be  very  few  empty  cells  in  which  to  rear  yonng  bees. 
4.  It  is  deceptive,  because  a  cheap  and  inferior  article  is  sold  for  one  of 
superior  quality.  5.  It  results,  in  the  process  of  time,  in  the  extinction 
of  the  bees.  The  feeding  of  the  bees  may  be  practiced  with  advantage 
whenever  they  are  not  amply  supplied  with  winter  stores,  a  thing  which 
happens  to  late  swarms  and  to  those  from  which  large  quantities  of 
honey  have  been  taken.  For  this  purpose  a  cheap  article  may  be  used 
to  help  them  through  the  winter.  It  may  be  desirable  to  take  from 
the  bees  all  the  white  clover  honey  which  can  be  obtained  in  boxes  with 
a  view  to  supply  the  bees  with  a  cheaper  article." 

Daily  Examination  of  the  hives  for  the  removal  of  all  filth  tends  to 
domesticate  the  bees,  and  if  done  gently  the  effect  is  to  so  accustom 
them  to  their  keeper  that  he  can  handle  them  with  perfect  impunity. 

The  Posilion  of  the  licc-IIoilSC  should  be  free  from  exposure  to  the  north 
and  west  winds,  and  from  the  morning  sun.  A  southwest  exposure  is 
recommended  by  the  best  authorities. 

SUMMER  MANAGEMENT.- Preparations  for  Swarms.— Every  thing  ne- 
cessary should  now  be  prepared  for  the  establishment  of  swarms,  which 
may  be  expected  during  the  next  two  months,  else  there  may  be  running 
hither  and  thither,  while  the  swarm  takes  wing  and  is  lost  through  your 
delayed  preparation.  Hives,  or  boxes  if  you  intend  to  make  use  of 
these,  must  be  kept  dry  and  sweet;  stands  or  stools  to  place  them  on 
must  be  prepared,  and  a  hand-brush,  leather  gloves,  crape,  or  other 
covering  for  the  face,  placed  in  readiness. 

As  bees  require  water  to  drink,  especially  through  this  and  the  next 
month,  it  is  necessary  to  place  some  for  them,  if  there  is  no  pond  or 
rivulet  near.  Cotton  says  that,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  the  people  have  a 
notion  that  every  bee  goes  down  to  the  sea  to  drink  once  a  day.  Water 
is  needful  for  them  in  the  breeding  season,  and  they  will  drink  water 
with  salt  in  it,  and  like  it  better  than  the  freshest  brook  that  runs.  It 
is  very  curious  to  see  how  they  will  flock  by  thousands  to  the  drink- 
ing-troughs  in  April,  May,  and  part  of  June  ;  and  then  their  thirst  seems 
to  be  quenched  all  of  a  sudden,  for  not  one  will  be  seen  at  them.  The 
reason  seems  to  be  that  they  do  not  want  so  much  water  after  the 
greater  part  of  the  young  brood  is  hatched. 

Shallow  dishes  or  plates  filled  with  water,  and  having  thin  boards, 
pierced  with  small  holes,  floating  on  it,  from  which  the  bees  may  drink 
without  fear  of  drowning,  are  convenient.  Small  pebbles  or  moss, 
placed  in  the  plates  with  the  water,  will  answer  almost  as  well. 

The  hives,  if  old,  should  be  scalded  to  destroy  the  larva3  of  insects. 
If  new,  the  only  preparation  is  to  wet  the  inside  with  salt  and  water, 
sweetened  with  either  honey,  molasses,  or  sugar. 

Indications  of  Swarmlnsr. — The  most  certain  indications  of  swarming 
are,  the  hive  appearing  full  of  bees  — clusters  of  them  gathering  on  the 
outside,  and  sometimes  hanging  from  the  alighting-board  ;  they  also 
neglect  their  daily  toil  aiid  refrain  from  going  abroad  in  search  of  sweets, 
even  though  the  weather  be  ever  so  inviting.     Just  before  they  takq 


THE    BEE.  287 

flld^lit,  the  hive  is  hnshed,  the  bees  are  silent  and  carefully  loadinj^  them- 
selves with  provender  ibr  their  journey.  For  two  or  three  ni<>-lits  prior 
to  swanniiio-,  you  will  also  hear  a  peeuliar  humming  noise  within  the 
liive;  the  second  swarm  is  annoiuiced  by  a  ditferent  sort  of  buzzing-, 
being,  according  to  some  writers,  the  result  of  a  contest  as  to  which  of 
the  two  queens  shall  lead  oft'  from  the  hive.  It  is  the  old  queen  who 
leads  olf  the  first  sw^arm. 

If  a  swarm  be  about  to  quit  the  lilve,  the  slightest  change  of  weather 
^vill  prevent  their  doing  so,  but  nothing  so  eftectually  as  a  shower  of 
rain;  hence  an  excellent  mode  of  preventing  it,  when  the  bees  cluster 
on  the  outside  of  the  hive,  by  syringing  them  with  water  from  a  com- 
mon metallic  syringe.  When  a  sw^arm  leaves  the  hive,  if  it  do  not 
settle  on  some  tree  or  bush,  but  remains  in  the  air,  and  you  fear  its 
going  off  to  too  great  a  distance,  if  not  evading  you  altogether,  you 
may  bring  it  down  by  throwing  up  sand  or  dust,  which  the  bees  mis- 
take for  rain,  or  by  firing  a  gun,  which  they  mistake  for  thunder;  hence 
the  old  fashion  of  the  country  people  following  a  swarm  with  the  noise 
of  tire-shovels  and  frying-pans.  You  must  be  the  more  diligent  in  at 
once  securing  your  sAvarm,  for  it  is  a  fact  that  the  bees  send  out  scouts 
previous  to  swarming,  whose  duty  it  is  to  select  a  proper  habitation  for 
the  colony.  It  is,  on  this  account,  a  good  plan,  when  you  anticipate  a 
swarm,  to  leave  an  empty  hive,  previously  smeared  on  the  interior  with 
honey,  in  some  convenient  place,  but  not  too  near  the  old  one. 

When  the  swarm  settles,  the  bees  collect  themselves  in  a  heap  round 
the  queen,  hanging  to  each  other  by  means  of  their  feet.  When  thus 
suspended  from  a  tree,  they  may  be  secured  by  simply  holding  an  empty 
hive  under  them,  and  tapping  the  branch  from  which  they  are  suspended. 
'J hey  should,  in  this  case,  be  sprinkled  with  honey  and  water,  and  con 
fined  for  about  twelve  hours.  When  a  swarm  divides  into  two  or  more 
bands,  and  settle  separately,  it  is  probable  that  there  are  two  queens.  In 
this  case  you  must  secure  one  of  them. 

If,  through  your  inattention,  a  second  swarm  comes  off,  you  should, 
as  soon  as  you  have  hived  it,  secure  its  queen,  and  return  the  swarm  to 
the  hive;  indeed,  when  deprived  of  its  queen,  it  will  usually  immediate- 
ly return  of  its  own  accord.  Swarming  is  a  subject,  we  have  reason  to 
believe,  which  is  very  generally  misunderstood,  most  persons  desiring  to 
promote  it,  conceiving  that  the  greater  the  number  of  swarms  the  richer 
will  the  hives  be  in  August.  The  very  reverse  of  this  is  the  case;  for, 
when  a  hive  is  weak  in  numbers,  a  sufficient  number  of  bees  cannot  be 
spared  to  go  forth  for  honey ;  and  hence  they  will  be  scarcely  able  to 
collect  enough  for  their  actual  support,  far  less  to  collect  any  surplus  for 
their  master's  benefit.     Hear  Mr.  Jiriggs  : 

"The  swarming  of  bees  is  a  subject  on  which  much  misconception 
prevails.  Most  persons  who  keep  their  bees  in  the  old  straw-hive  plan, 
and  suftocating  system,  appear  to  anticipate  their  swarming  with  nuich 
anxiety,  and  to  be  of  opinion  that  the  greater  number  of  swarms — firsts, 
seconds,  thirds,  etc. — they  obtain  from  their  old  hives  during  the  sum- 
mer, the  more  remunerative  will  they  prove  to  the  owner  at  the  end  of 
the  season  ;  whereas  the  reverse  of  the  above  practice  is  much  nearer  of 
being  the  best  system  to  follow^  which  I  shall  endeavor  to  elucidate.    It 


288  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

has  been  proved  from  observation,  that  the  average  percentage  of 
swarms  have  been  twenty-four  in  May,  sixty  in  June,  fourteen  in  July, 
and  two  in  August;  from  which  it  will  appear  that  June  is  the  principal 
month  for  swarming,  in  ordinary  seasons;  and  it  is  in  June  and  July 
that  the  greatest  quantities  of  honey  are  stored  up  by  the  bees,  when 
nianaged  in  a  judicious  manner. 

"  When  the  swarming  is  assisted  and  encouraged  during  June  and 
July,  the  old  stocks  are  considerably  weakened,  and  the  swarms  are  em- 
ployed in  building  combs  in  their  new  hives,  collecting  pollen,  and  at- 
tending to  the  young  brood,  until  the  best  part  of  the  honey-storing 
season  is  over;  so  that,  at  the  honey  harvest  in  autumn,  it  will  fre- 
quently require  the  contents  of  five  or  six  old  stocks,  or  late  swarms,  to 
produce  as  much  pure  honey  as  might  have  been  obtained  from  one 
colony  on  the  system  of  management  which  is  recommended." 

In  collateral  boxes,  and  in  capped  hives,  swarming  may  be  prevented 
by  affording  the  bees  additional  accommodation,  and  reducing  the  tem- 
perature;  and,  for  this  end,  it  is  recommended,  by  most  apiarians,  that 
the  hive  or  box  should  be  furnished  with  a  thermometer  as  well  as 
ventilator.  We  think,  however,  that  even  those  who  do  not  possess 
these  accommodations  may  manage  well  enough  by  proper  observation 
and  attention  to  the  symptoms  we  have  detailed.  When  these  appear 
in  a  collateral  box-hive,  open  one  of  the  partitions,  and  admit  the  bees 
into  a  new  apartment;  if  all  be  full,  take  off  a  box,  empty  and  restore 
it.  In  the  case  of  a  capped  hive,  remove  the  bung,  and  admit  the  bees 
to  the  cap ;  if  full,  remove,  empty,  and  restore  it.  On  this  subject  Mr. 
Briggs  says : 

"The  most  favorable  degrees  of  heat  for  the  prosperity  of  the  brood 
are  from  75°  to  90°  in  the  stock  hive,  and  from  65°  to  75°  in  the  side 
boxes.  The  heat  in  a  prosperous  hive  is  sometimes  upward  of  70°  at 
Christmas,  and  will,  in  hot  summer  weather,  sometimes  rise  to  near 
120°,  at  which  time  the  combs  are  in  great  danger  of  being  damaged, 
and  of  falling  to  the  tioor  of  the  hive;  this  may,  however,  be  prevented, 
by  giving  extra  room  when  required,  and  by  shading  the  hives  from 
extreme  heat,  as  previously  directed.  It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind 
that  all  operations  with  bees  should  be  performed  as  carefully  and  as 
speedily  as  circumstances  will  permit.  The  late  Mr.  T.  Nutt  remarked, 
in  a  conversation  with  him  a  few  months  previous  to  his  decease,  'that 
in  removing  boxes,  glasses,  slides,  etc.,  the  apiarian  should  proceed  in  a 
manner  so  steady  and  cautious,  that  the  bees  should  scarcely  know  that 
their  habitation  had  been  meddled  with  ;'  in  which  remarks  I  fully  con- 
cur." 

After  having  a  new  swarm,  you  must  also  recollect,  that  if  unfavorable 
weather  follow  their  departure,  you  must  feed  them,  otherwise  they  will 
be  starved  ;  indeed,  it  would  he  well  if  each  new  swarm  were  always 
fed  for  a  few  days,  as  this  will  assist  them  in  gaining  strength  in  num- 
bers and  in  store,  before  the  principal  part  of  the  honey  season  goes 
over.  In  conclusion  we  would  merely  say,  that  the  weight  of  a  good 
swarm  should  be  from  five  to  seven  pounds,  and  that  all  under  five 
pounds  in  weight  should  be  united  to  others,  as  being  too  weak  in  num- 
bers to  support  themselves. 


THE    BEE.  *  289 

Eec  Dress. — In  hiving  a  swarm  it  is  as  well  to  be  protected  with  a 
proper  bee  dress.  Prevention  is  better  than  cure,  and  it  is  better  to  be 
sure  than  sorry ;  yet  bees  are  certainly  less  apt  to  sting  at  this  time 
tlian  any  other. 

Some  persons  are  particnlarly  unhappy  in  possessing  those  qualities 
which  render  them  disagreeable  to  bees.  The  main  objections  are,  ex- 
cessive timidity,  and  likewise,  with  some,  an  unpleasant  odor,  in  some 
instances  the  result  of  personal  negligence,  but  frequently  of  peculiarity 
of  constitution.  The  i-emedies  are  a  bee-dress  for  the  former,  and  the 
use  of  some  strong  perfume  which  the  bees  like,  and  which  will  effectu- 
ally conceal  whatever  is  offensive  to  them. 

"  I  have  gone  among  them,"  says  Mr.  AYorlidge,  "  in  their  greatest 
anger  and  madness,  only  with  a  handful  of  sweet  herbs  in  my  hand, 
fanning  about  my  face,  as  it  were  to  obscure  and  defend  it.  Also,  if  a 
bee  do  by  accident  buzz  about  you,  being  unprovided,  thrust  your  face 
amongst  a  parcel  of  boughs  or  herbs,  and  he  will  desert  you.  Bnt  the 
most  secure  way  of  all,  and  beyond  the  completest  harness  yet  published, 
is  to  have  a  net  knit  with  so  small  meshes  that  a  bee  cannot  pass 
through,  and  of  fine  thread  or  silk,  large  enough  to  go  over  your  hat, 
and  to  lie  down  to  the  collar  of  your  dress,  through  which  you  may 
perfectly  see  what  you  do  without  danger,  having  also  on  a  pair  of 
woolen  gloves." 

Mr.  E.  W.  Phelps  describes  the  following  form  of  a  bee-dress,  which 
may  be  procured  at  an  expense  not  exceeding  twenty  five  cents :  "Take 
one  and  a  half  yards  of  thin,  light,  three-quarter  muslin,  and  a  piece  of 
wire-cloth  (such-as  is  used  for  meal  sieves)  about  six  inches  square;  it 
may  be  obtained  of  wire-weavers  in  most  of  our  large  towns  and  cities, 
or  of  hardware  dealers.  Lay  the  muslin  over  the  head,  with  the  ends 
down  over  the  shoulders,  with  one  end  of  the  selvedge  in  front  and  the 
other  back.  The  back  part  may  be  cut  and  fitted  to  the  head,  and  a 
cord  run  in  to  gather  it  around  the  neck,  and  the  wire-cloth  sewed  in 
over  the  f\ice,  first  rounding  the  corners  in  shape  of  the  face.  It  should 
extend  down  below  the  mouth,  to  afford  free  respiration,  and  the  mus- 
lin sewed  together  below  the  wire-cloth,  sufficient  to  extend  below  the 
vest.  It  may  be  worn  under  a  coat,  but  it  is  not  the  best  way,  as  it  is 
usually  warm  weather  when  it  is  worn,  and  with  the  head-dress  and  a 
coat  over  it,  a  person  will  be  very  uncomfortable  on  account  of  the  heat; 
besides,  the  bees  will  crawl  up  under  one's  coat  and  vest,  and  wlien  in 
close  quarters  will  often  prick  through  the  shirt,  and  tickle  a  person 
under  the  ribs.  To  prevent  this  and  the  other  difficulty,  I  have  pre- 
pared myself  with  a  garment  made  of  the  same  kind  of  material  as  the 
head-dress,  and  in  the  form  of  a  hunting-shirt,  open  before,  with  but- 
tons close  together,  to  button  up  tight.  I  first  put  on  my  liead-dress, 
and  then  over  this  my  hunting-shirt,  buttoned  under  my  pants ;  and 
with  a  pair  of  thick  woolen  gloves,  with  stocking  legs  sewed  to  the 
wrists,  to  draw  up  over  my  sleeves,  and  my  pants  tied  over  my  boots,  I 
can  defy  all  the  forces  they  choose  to  bring  against  me. 

Clustering  Shrubs  and  Bushes,  placed  in  the  vicinity  of  the  apiary,  are 
recommended  by  experienced  bee-keepers,  as  tending  to  diminish  the 
difficulties  of  hiving  bees.  Mr.  Phelps  directs  to  "take  the  seed-ends  of 
13 


290  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

mnllen-stalks  about  a  dozen  in  nnmbcr,  and  tie  these  to  tlie  tops  of 
poles;  the  poles  should  be  set  in  the  ground  so  as  to  be  easily  taken 
lip  after  the  bees  have  settled  on  them  ;  by  inanai;-ii)g  in  this  manner, 
the  hive  may  be  set  in  the  apiary,  before  hiving,  and  the  bees  may  be 
carried  on  the  pole  and  laid  by  the  side  of  the  hive,  when  they  will  en- 
ter it;  this  saves  the  trouble  of  moving  the  hive  after  hiving,  and  con- 
sequently no  bees  will  be  lost.  The  mullen  tops  sliould  be  attached  to 
the  poles  so  as  to  lie  nearly  horizontally.  What  there  is  in  the  mullen- 
stalks  so  attracting  to  the  bees  I  know  not,  unless  it  is  their  rough, 
nneven  surface,  which  affords  the  bees  security  against  falling;  old  dry 
weather-beaten  stalks  are  as  good  as  any." 

Mr.  Weeks  directs  that  "when  there  are  no  fruit-trees  nor  shrubbery 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  bees,  it  is  found  that  they  will  cluster 
on  bushes  artificially  set  down  about  the  hives;  say,  take  hemlock, 
cedar,  or  sugar-maple  bushes  six,  eight,  or  ten  feet  liigh  ;  sharpen  the 
largest  end,  with  the  foliage  remaining  on  the  top,  and  set  them  down 
like  bean-poles  promiscuously  round  about  the  hives,  two,  three,  or  four 
rods  distant;  when  the  bees  swarra,  they  will  usually  cluster  in  a  body 
on  some  one  of  them,  which  may  be  pulled  up,  and  the  bees  shaken  off 
for  the  hive.  Some  apiarians  confine  a  bunch  of  the  seed-ends  of  dry 
muUen-stalks  near  the  top  of  the  bush,  so  as  to  represent,  at  a  little  dis- 
tance, a  cluster  of  bees:  this  is  said  to  be  unfailing  in  catching  swarms. 
Others  recommend  to  drive  down  two  stakes,  two  or  three  feet  apart, 
and  confine  a  stick  of  sufficient  strength  to  each  stake  two  or  three  feet 
from  the  gi-ound,  forming  a  cross-bar,  so  that,  when  a  board  twelve  feet 
long  is  laid,  one  end  resting  on  the  cross-bar  and  the  other  on  the  ground, 
the  bees  will  cluster  under  it,  admitting  it  is  at  a  reasonable  distance, 
and  yet  so  far  from  the  old  stock  as  to  be  out  of  hearing  of  their  hum. 
Any  one  will  know  how  to  turn  the  board  over,  and  set  an  empty  hive 
over  the  bees. 

"The  hiver  is  made  of  three  rough  boards,  half  an  inch  thick,  seven 
inch-es  wide,  twenty-four  inches  long,  nailed  together  like  a  common 
trough,  open  at  both  ends, — a  strap  of  iron  riveted  on  its  outside,  across 
the  center  of  each  board,  with  a  shank  or  socket  to  insert  a  rod  to 
handle  it  with,  so  that  when  inverted  by  means  of  the  rod,  and  placed 
over  the  bees  w^ien  alighting,  it  forms  a  kind  of  half  hive,  wdiich  they 
readily  enter.  There  should  be  from  a  dozen  to  twenty  half-inch  holes 
bored  through  the  top  board,  so  as  to  let  the  alighting  bees  enter  through 
the  holes.  When  a  small  proportion  of  the  bees  are  found  in  the  hiver, 
it  may  be  moved  a  few  feet  from  the  limb,  which  may  be  shaken  with 
another  rod  with  a  hook  on  its  end,  which  disengages  the  bees,  and  in 
a  few  moments  the  whole  swarm  will  be  found  in  the  hiver.  By  the 
addition  of  ferules  and  joints,  the  hiver  may  be  raised  to  any  reasonable 
height.  Thus  the  labor  of  climbing,  the  use  of  ladders,  and  cutting  the 
limbs  of  precious  fruit-trees,  is  entirely  dispensed  with.  It  likewise  en- 
ables the  apiarian,  in  large  establishments,  to  divide  out  and  keep  sep- 
arate his  swarms,  which  might  otherwise  alight  many  in  one  body." 

ManagCIllfnt  of  BllU'k  Tombs. — The  combs  in  hives'that  have  stood  for 
several  years  become  black  and  useless,  because  the  bees  never  clear  out 
the  cells  in  which  the  brood  has  been  reared,  and  the  skins  which  the 


THE     BKK.  291 

youncT  bees  cast  gradually  fill  up  tlie  cells  until  they  are  too  small  for 
brecdinsT;  in;  in  consequence  the  hives  get  weaker  and  weaker;  swarm- 
ing cannot  take  place,  and  at  last  the  bees  die. 

"To  prevent  this  fatal  end,  you  may  in  spring,  before  breeding-time 
commences,  after  fumigating  the  bees  a  little,  turn  up  the  hive  and  cut 
out  half  the  comb  ;  put  the  bees  in  again,  and  during  the  summer 
they  will  fill  up  the  vacancy,  and  have  room  for  breeding.  Next  spring 
take  out  the  remainder  of  the  old  comb  in  the  same  way.  One  stock 
treated  in  this  manner  is  said  to  have  been  kept  for  the  long  period  of 
sixty  years.  Sometimes,  when  a  stock  has  not  swarmed,  it  is  desirable 
to  remove  the  bees  altogether  from  the  old  hive  into  a  new  one.  This 
must  only  be  done  during  the  first  week  in  July;  if  attempted  earlier, 
the  new  brood  not  being  all  hatched,  many  bee-grubs  would  be  de- 
stroyed, and  you  would  have  a  weak  stock.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
transferred  later,  there  would  not  be  time  for  them  to  make  their  comb 
and  lay  up  winter  store.  Fumigate  or  intoxicate  the  bees  at  night,  and 
put  them  while  stupefied  into  a  new  hive,  taking  care  that  the  queen  is 
among  them  ;  place  the  hive  on  the  stand  in  the  same  position  the  old 
one  occupied,  and  on  the  morrow  they  will  commence  their  labor  as  a 
new  swarm.  If  the  weather  be  fine,  they  will  do  well ;  but  if  they  are 
found  to  be  weak  in  autumn,  take  them  up  and  unite  them  with  another 
stock. 

September  is  the  proper  time  for  carefully  inspecting  your  stocks,  to 
ascertain  which  will  stand  the  winter,  for  fec^ling  those  which  have  not 
sufficient  food,  and  for  uniting  weak  stocks  to  strong  ones,  as  previously 
recommended. 

By  gently  striking  the  hives,  you  may  judge  whether  they  contain 
many  or  few  bees,  from  the  greater  or  lesser  noise  they  make  in  the 
buzzing  which  immediately  follows.  Do  not  leave  any  to  remain  for  the 
winter  but  such  as  weigh  about  twenty  pounds.*  But  recollect  that  a 
hive  with  two  thousand  bees  will  be  more  likely  to  survive  than  one 
with  only  one  thousand,  even  if  the  latter  have  much  more  honey.  On 
this  account  it  is  important  to  ascertain  the  number  of  bees,  and  to  make 
your  standing  stocks  as  strong  as  possible,  to  maintain  sufficient  heat  in 
the  liives. 

FALL  FEEDING. — Whatever  food  is  required  must  be  given  now,  as  bees 
should  not  on  any  account  be  fed  in  winter.  Those  who  have  not  the 
convenience  of  the  feeding-pans  for  the  top  of  the  hive,  should  provide 
little  hollow  troughs  made  of  elder,  or  a  split  bamboo  stopped  at  the 
ends.  These  must  be  filled  with  honey  or  syrup,  and  then  pushed  into 
the  mouth  of  the  hive  at  sunset,  the  entrance  being  carefully  closed,  to 
prevent  other  bees  from  entering.  Feeding  should  not  take  place  in  the 
daytime,  as  the  hive  will  then  be  subject  to  the  depredations  of  wasps 
and  robber-bees  which  are  attracted  by  the  scent,  and  not  unfrequently 
devour  the  whole  of  the  honey.  In  the  morning,  a  little  before  sunrise, 
remove  the  troughs.     Continue  this  operation  nightly  until  you  are  sure 

*  Age  will  cause  hives  to  weigh  heavier  than  their  legitimate  contents  would  call 
for;  this  is  occasioned  by  an  accumulation  of  bee-hread  and  the  cast  sloughs  which 
had  formerly  served  as  envelopes  to  the  3'oung.  In  the  case  of  old  hives,  you  must, 
therefore,  allow  from  two  to  five  pounds,  according  to  age,  for  these  matters. 


292  DOMESTIC    Al^lMALS. 

ymir  bees  have  sufRcient  winter  provision.  Do  not  be  stingy  :  as  we 
have  said  before,  you  will  reap  the  profit  of  liberality  to  your  bees  in  the 
rich  return  they  will  make. 

nCUSING,  etc.,  IN  WINTER.— When  there  is  snow  upon  the  gronn.l, 
the  entrances  of  your  hives  should  be  entirely  closed,  and  a  screen  oi 
shade  should  be  placed  before  the  hive,  in  case  of  an  accidental  sunny 
day  occurring,  in  order  to  prevent  the  bees  from  encountering  even  a 
single  deceptive  ray. 

Another  danger  from  wliich  you  are  imperatively  called  upon  to  pro- 
tect your  bees  during  winter  is  dmnpneas.  It  is  to  this  cause  that  the 
loss  of  many  a  stock  is  to  be  attributed — an  internal  dampness^  gener- 
ated within  the  hive  itself.  This  is  best  remedied  by  careful  ventilation, 
placing  a  bell-glass,  well  covered  with  llannel,  over  the  aperture  on  the 
top  of  your  hive  or  box,  removing  it  from  time  to  time,  and  carefully 
wiping  away  from  its  interior  the  damp  formed  by  condensed  vapor; 
this  remedy  is  at  once  simple  and  efficacious. 

It  will,  perhaps,  appear  to  some  of  our  readers  a  singular  experiment, 
resorted  to  by  some  bee-keepers,  viz.,  burying  the  hives.  When  this  is 
to  be  attempted,  the  hive  should  be  buried  in  a  cool,  dry,  shady  place, 
among  leaves,  about  a  foot  deep,  and  the  interment  should  be  performed 
during  the  first  or  second  week  of  November. 

A  friend  buried  a  hive  of  bees  in  the  first  week  of  November,  about 
a  foot  deep,  amongst  dry  leaves,  etc.,  and  disinterred  it  in  the  last  week  of 
February,  when  it  was  just  two  pounds  lighter  than  it  was  in  November^ 
and  the  bees  in  a  lively  and  healthy  state.  Another  person  immured  a 
hive  of  bees  in  the  earth  four  feet  deep,  in  the  second  week  of  Novem- 
ber, and  at  the  end  of  January  it  was  removed,  and  weighed  only  three 
ounces  less  than  it  did  before  it  was  buried. 

The  above  experiments  are  worthy  of  attention  ;  a  shed  having  a 
northern  aspect,  and  which  is  as  dry  as  possible,  would  be  a  suitable 
place  for  further  trials.  The  principal  points  by  which  there  might  be 
cause  for  fear  of  failure,  woahl,  as  in  other  cases,  be  from  dampness, 
disease  for  want  of  fresh  air,  and  attacks  from  vermin,  etc.  To  prevent 
the  former  I  would  recommend  that  the  hives  be  placed  on  a  long  frame 
of  wood,  covei'cd  by  a  web  of  closely  worked  wire,  and  raised  a  few 
inches  from  the  ground,  the  ends  of  wliich  should  communicate  with 
and  be  occasionally  opened  to  the  fresh  air.  A  long  tube  should  also  be 
placed  from  the  hole  at  the  top  of  each  hive  to  the  open  air  of  the  shed, 
from  the  upper  end  of  which  any  dampness  might  be  condensed  by  bell- 
glasses,  and  conveyed  away  as  already  directed. 

Among  other  obvious  mistakes,  I  may  mention  the  recommendation 
to  give  the  bees  an  opportunity  of  leaving  the  hive,  and  going  abroaci 
every  fine  day,  already  detailed.  What  advantage  is  expected  to  be  de 
rived  from  thus  permitting  the  insects  to  go  forth  ?  They  niay  be  sup- 
posed to  want  exercise.  This  is  a  mistake  ;  for  the-bees  naturally  crowd 
together,  and  remain  in  a  sort  of  torpor  during  winter,  and  every  thing 
that  could  tend  to  interfere  with,  or  arouse  them  from  it,  must,  of  course, 
prove  contrary  to  their  natural  instincts,  and  consequently,  prejudicial. 
During  winter  the  bees  are  inactive. 

HIVES  AND  BOXES. — By  having  proper  hives  and  boxes  for  bees,  the 


THE    BEE.  293 

following  advantages  arc  obtained  : — First — the  power  of  deprivino-  bees 
of  hone}^  at  pleasure,  without  injuring  them.  Second-ly — obtaining  it  in 
larger  quantities,  and  of  finer  quality.  Thirdly — The  means  of  a  more 
thorough  ventilation,  the  keeping  of  the  bees  cool,  and  of  enlarging  their 
accommodations  at  pleasure,  and  the  power  to  control  swarming  at  will. 

ENEMIES  OF  BEES.— These  are  far  more  numerous  than  their  diseases, 
and  are  as  follows  : 

Poultry,  mice,  toads,  frogs,  snails,  slugs,  caterpillars,  moths,  millipedes, 
wood-lice,  ants,  lice,  spiders,  wasps,  hornets. 

Fowls  should  not  be  permitted  in  any  apiary.  They  will  kill  and  eat 
the  bees,  and  such  as  they  do  not  destroy  they  will  annoy  and  disturb 
— besides,  your  bees  will  probably  occupy  a  stand  in  your  garden,  a 
quarter  whence  other  reasons  should  necessarily  exclude  poultry. 

Mire. — While  the  bees  are  vigorous,  the  field-mouse  does  not  dare 
attack  the  hive;  but  as  the  cold  approaches,  and  the  bees  become  less 
active,  he  enters,  and  commencing  with  the  lower  conib,  ascends  by  de- 
grees as  the  bees  become  torpid,  until  he  eitlier  clears  all  away,  or  by 
the  smell  of  the  honey  he  has  wasted  on  the  board,  induces  other  bees 
to  come  and  plunder.  As  soon  as  the  warm  weather  returns,  the  sur- 
viving bees  w'ill  leave  the  hive  in  disgust.  The  remedy  is  easy.  By 
having  your  straw  hives,  if  you  use  such,  coated  on  the  exterior  with 
Roman  cement,  you  will  prevent  mice  from  nestling  in  the  straw,  whence 
otherwise  they  would  speedily  eat  their  way  into  the  interior,  and  by 
narrowing  the  entrance  of  the  hive  in  the  manner  already  described, 
you  \\\\\  eifectually  keep  out  these  little  intruders.  If  your  stands  be 
placed  on  a  single  foot,  or  if  the  feet  are  so  placed  under  the  foot-board 
as  to  leave  a  wide,  projecting  ledge,  no  mice  can  arrive  at  the  hive. 

Toads  will  kill  bees  occasionally,  but  not  in  sufl^cient  numbers  to  excite 
our  alarm  ;  but  the  toad  is  rather  to  be  regarded  as  a  friend  to  the  bees 
— one  of  their  enemies,  the  spider,  being  his  favorite  food. 

FroSS  may  be  classed  with  toads. 

Snails  and  Slugs. — These  creatures  are  not  absolutely  enemies  of  bees, 
as  they  have  no  design  upon  them  or  their  honey  in  entering  the  hive, 
but  merely  do  so  from  accident.  The  mischief  done  by  them  consists 
in  the  alarm  and  confusion  they  occasion.  The  bees  first  attack  the 
nnfortunate  intruder  and  kill  him  with  their  stings,  after  which  they 
carefully  incase  him  in  propolis,  effectually  preventing  putrefaction  or 
the  ]M-oduction  of  maggots. 

CatPrpillars. — The  most  dreaded  is  tlie  caterpillar  of  the  wax-moth, 
so  calle«l  from  the  ravages  it  makes  amongst  the  combs  as  soon  as  it 
obtains  entrance.  By  having  the  legs  of  the  stand  placed  as  we  have 
already  described,  no  caterpillar  can  climb  up  to  the  hive;  but  this  will 
not  prevent  the  moth  herself  from  entering  and  depositing  eggs  in  the 
hive;  and  so  prolific  are  these  moths,  that  a  single  brood  would  suffice 
to  destroy  a  whole  stock.  Periodical  fumigation,  and  cutting  away 
such  combs  as  contain  the  grubs,  are  the  remedies  to  be  adopted.  Moths 
are  only  nocturnal  enemies.  During  the  day  you  have  nothing  to  fear 
from  their  attacks.  Let  the  entrance  to  the  hive,  therefore,  be  nearly 
closed  in  the  evening,  and  you  will  protect  your  bees  from  their  ravages. 
Columella  recommends,  as  a  trap  for  moths,  a  bottle,  or  other  vessel, 

51 


291:  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

witti  a  long  and  narrow  neck  increasing  gradually  to  a  wide  rnoutli, 
and  having  a  light  in  the  neck,  to  be  placed  under  the  hive  in  the 
evening.  We  can  vouch  for  the  efficacy  of  this  trap — it  will  destroy 
numbers.  Another  particular  to  be  attended  to  is  to  have  your  stocks 
sufficiently  strong ;  and  for  this  purpose,  if  the  hive  attacked  be  weak, 
unite  it  to  the  bees  of  another  hive,  in  the  manner  already  described. 
The  bees  are  themselves,  if  sufficiently  strong  in  numbers,  both  williiio- 
and  able  to  destroy  the  intruders.  If  weak,  they  will  necessarily  fall 
victims. 

Millipedes,  or  Wood-lice,  are  often  produced  by  the  stands  being  made 
of  decayed  wood,  or  the  hive  being  placed  too  near  an  old  hedge.  Let 
the  stand  be  of  new  wood,  and  strew  soot  on  the  ground  under  and 
about  the  hive.  This  will  also  serve  in  part  as  a  protection  against  the 
attacks  of  ants. 

Ants. — You  should  always  destroy  such  ants'  nests  as  you  find  in  the 
neighborhood  of  a  hive.  In  the  West  Indies,  glass-fe'et  are  used  to  pre- 
vent these  insects  from  getting  into  furniture,  etc.  Might  not  such  be 
used  with  advantage  for  bee-hives? 

Lice. — These  are  small  parasitical  insects  of  a  red  color,  which  adhere 
to  the  body  of  the  bee,  and  derive  their  nourishment  from  their  juices. 
They  are  about  the  size  of  a  grain  of  mustard-seed,  or  rather  smaller. 

Reaumur  and  others  tried  many  remedies  for  these  troublesome  in- 
sects, but  in  vain,  till  at  length  Madame  Vicat  discovered  that  Morocco 
tobacco  will  kill  the  lice  without  injuring  the  bees. 

Spiders. — Brush  away  their  wets  wherever  you  meet  with  them  near 
your  stand. 

Wasps  (inJ  Hornets. — These  insects  are  most  noxious  to  bees.  Dig  up 
and  destroy  their  nests  wherever  you  meet  with  them ;  but  you  will 
most  eftectually  get  rid  of  them  by  offering  a  reward  for  every  queen 
wasp  brought  to  you  in  spring.  The  destruction  of  each  queen  is  tanta- 
mount to  tliat  of  an  entire  nest;  and  if  this  plan  were  generally  adopt- 
ed, wasps  would  eventually  be  extirpated. 

Birds. — Among  those  which  are  the  greatest  enemies  to  bees,  we 
may  mention  sparrows  and  swallows.  Set  traps  near  the  hives,  baited 
with  dead  bees  ;  shoot  the  birds;  and  hang  up  a  few  of  such  birds  ns 
you  kill,  on  trees  near  the  stands.  Perseverance  for  a  time  in  this  will 
rid  you  of  the  annoyance. 

Bees. — Bees  are  amongst  the  most  dangerous  foes  of  their  own  kind, 
being  bold  and  resolute  plunderers.  It  is  only  weak  stocks^  however, 
that  suffer,  so  that  union  is  the  obvious  cure.  Avoid  also  placing  your 
hives  too  close  together ;  and  also  avoid  at  any  time  placing  a  weak 
stock  near  a  strong  one. 

BEE-FLOWERS. — Conspicuous  among  all  the  plants  loved  by  bees  (for 
the  best  of  reasons,  that  they  get  the  most  honey  or  other  substances 
from  them),  are  clover,  wild-thyme,  heath  and  broom,  borao-o,  French 
buckwheat,  and  Melilofus  leucantha.  This  last  may  be  usefully  grown 
for  the  bees'  especial  gratification.  It  is  easily  cultivated,  blooms  from 
June  to  November,  and  is  ornamental  in  addition  to  its  other  good 
qualities.  But  the  most  important  qualification  of  bee-pastnrage  is, 
that  there  shall  be  always  something  for  the  bees,  from  the  very  earliest 


THE    BEE.  2: '5 

spring  to  the  very  latest  autumn.  It  will  be  useful,  tliercfore,  to  append 
a  list  of  bee-flowers. 

Sprillff.  —  Erica  carnea,*  winter  aconite,*  rosemary,*  laurustinus, 
hazel,*  snow-drop,  crocus,*  willow,*  osier,*  primrose,  liepatica,  violet, 
almond,  wallflower*  (single),  borage,*  onion,  gooseberry,  apricot,  peach, 
apple,  gooseberry,*  currant,*  laurel,  turnip,*  cabbage,  etc.,*  strawberry, 
tulip,  hawthorn,  gorse  or  furze,  columbine,  laburnum,  berberry,*  ribes 
sanguineum,  Dutch  clover.* 

SunillKT. — Syringa,  helianthemum,  annual  poppy,*  sea-kale,  Fi-ench 
willow,  sweet-brier,  bean,  yellow  lupine,  mignonette,*  blackberry,  chest- 
nut, mallow,  lime,*  hyssop,  teazle,  nasturtium,  yellow  vetch,  sainfoin, 
broom,  wheat,  viper's  bugloss,*  raspberry,*  symphora,  racemosa. 

Autumn. — Michaelmas  daisy,  winter  savory,  purple  houseleek,  ivy, 
honeysuckle,  French  buckwheat*  sowed  at  midsummer,  Spanij^h  broom,* 
hollyhock,*  heath,*  sunflower,  lemon  thyme,*  St.  JohnVwort,  melilo- 
tus  leucantha.* 

Those  marked  with  an  asterisk  are  understood  to  be  the  fiowei-s  espe- 
cially favored  by  the  bees.  What  a  choice  little  garden  for  himself,  as 
well  as  for  his  bees,  the  apiarian  may  make  from  the  above  list,  if  he 
does  not  choose  to  leave  the  bees  dependent  upon  the  stores  of  the 
neighborhood  at  lavo-e ! 

TRANSPORTING  BEES.— Though  few,  in  this  country,  it  is  presumed,  will 
adopt  the  plan  recommended  in  the  following  paragraphs,  yet  they  are 
interesting  as  showing  the  pains  taken  elsewlierein  the  keeping  of  bees : 

"  Should  the  surrounding  neighborhood  not  furnish  a  sufhciency  of 
flowers,  the  practice  of  transportation,  or  shifting,  is  strongly  recom- 
mended by  many  authors.  It  is  not  in  the  power  of  every  bee-keeper, 
but  as  those  whose  home  is  placed  by  a  river  or  canal,  have  a  means  at 
hand  for  transporting  their  hives,  we  have  chosen  to  mention  it  here. 
In  some  countries,  boats  are  built  expressly  for  this  pui-pose.  Thev 
receive  a  very  large  number  of  hives  in  each  boat,  and  by  traveling  for 
a  few  hours  at  night,  the  bees  find  themselves  in  a  new  country  during 
their  working  hours,  and  the  hives  are  rapidly  filled  with  honey  and 
wax  of  the  best  quality.  The  boatmen  receive  a  small  sum  for  each 
hive  that  they  transport,  but  we  rather  fancy  that  their  ingenuity  do(  s 
not  rest  until  it  has  extracted  some  portion  of  the  honey  from  the  best- 
filled  liives.  The  Nile  is  much  used  for  this  purpose,  and  bees  traverse 
the  entire  length  of  Egypt  during  the  sunnner.  In  China  ducks  are 
subjected^  to  the  same  migratory  life,  and  thrive  amazingly.  Hives 
may  easily  be  carried  on  men's  shoulders,  as  that  mode  of  co^iveyance 
shakes  them  less  than  carriage  by  wagon.  Heaths  are  the  best  places 
that  bees  can  possibly  live  in,  and  in  Scotland  there  are  people  who 
make  their  living  by  taking  care  of  hives  during  the  time  that  the  heath 
is  in  blossom,  a  period  of  about  two  months,  for  which  time  a  rent  of 
from  one  shilling  to  eighteen  pence  is  paid  by  the  proprietor.  It  is 
always  necessary  while  the  bees  are  migrating,  to  take  them  at  least  ten 
miles  during  the  nocturnal  journe}",  as  they  are  otherwise  apt  to  fly 
back  to  the  former  position  of  their  hive,  and  to  lose  themselves  in 
searching  for  it.  The  distance  to  which  bees  can  fly  for  food  is  shown 
in  the  following  anecdote,  which  has  been  recently  published: 


296  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

"*A  man  who  kept  bees  in  Holborn,  wisliinfy  to  find  ont  where 
they  worked,  sprinkled  them  all  with  a  red  powder  as  tliey  came  out 
of  the  hive  in  the  morning.  As  the  heath  and  thyme  were  now  in  full 
bloom,  he  at  once  thouglit  that  Hampstead,  being  the  nearest  heath, 
would  be  the  likeliest  place  to  find  his  bees.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  his 
bees  were  gone  away,  he  hastened  to  the  heights  of  Hampstead.  The 
walk  was  a  long  and  toilsome  one,  of  at  least  four  miles,  in  a  July  sun. 
But  he  trudged  manfully  on,  soon  left  behind  him  Camden  and  Kentish 
towns,  and  at  last  was  refreshed  with  the  soft  summer  breeze  sweeping 
across  the  purple  and  golden  bloom  of  the  heath.  After  a  few  minutes' 
rest  on  the  green  sward,  he  began  his  search,  and  before  long  was  de- 
lighted to  find  there,  among  thousands  of  other  busy  bees,  his  own  little 
fellows  in  the  dusty  red  coats,  wliich  he  liud  given  them  in  the  morn- 
ing.' Many  of  the  bees  m.-ide  the  journey  more  than  twice  in  each 
day,  thus  piloting  themselves  through  sixteen  miles  of  smoke  and  dust 
within  the  twelve  hours. 

"If  the  hives  are  taken  by  water,  they  should  always  be  placed  on 
the  shore  at  some  distance  from  the  bjink,  before  opening  the  doors,  as 
they  will  very  probably  when  returning  home,  wearied  and  laden  with 
their  burdens,  fall  into  the  water  before  they  can  reach  the  hive.  If 
the  hives  are  placed  for  the  season,  they  should  be  kept  at  some  little 
distance  from  other  hives,  as  if  they  are  weak,  their  more  powerful 
neighbors  will  inevitably  plunder  them." 

FUMIGATION. — The  following  particular  description  of  the  manner  of 
fumigating  or  stupefying  bees  will  enable  any  one  to  practice  it. 

Fumigation  implies  directing  certain  sn)oke  of  a  stupefying  character 
into  the  hives,  so  as  to  render  the  bees  harmless  while  their  combs  are 
being  removed,  while  at  the  same  time  no  injury  is  done  to  the  bees 
themselves.  There  are  several  substances  which  stupefy  ;  tobacco  is  one, 
but  it  is  apt  to  give  the  wax  and  honey  an  unpleasant  flavor,  and  we 
will,  therefore,  say  nothing  a'oout  it.  The  best  material  that  can  be  used 
for  this  purpose,  is  the  lycoperdon,  or  common  putf-ball.  A  fine  specimen 
of  this  fungus  will  grow  as  large  as  a  child's  head.  It  may  be  found  in 
almost  any  field  where  mushrooms  grow.  It  should  always  be  gathered 
when  nearly  ripe,  in  dry  weather,  and  either  exposed  to  the  heat  of 
the  sun  or  placed  in  an  oven  until  it  turns  brown  and  leathery.  Some 
always  squeeze  it  flat  during  tiie  drvinu'  j)rocess,  as  it  then  can  be  packed 
easier,  and  appears  to  take  fire  sooiier  than  if  left  to  dry  in  any  shape  it 
chooses  to  take.  In  order  to  insure  its  burning  freely -when  lighted, 
some  re(?t)mmend  that  when  dried,  it  should  be  dipped  in  a  very  weak 
solution  of  saltpetre,  and  again  dried.  There  are  inany  ways  of  apply i rig 
the  smoke,  but  all  ai'e  useless  unless  the  fungus  is  retained  outside  the 
hive,  and  only  the  smoke  permitted  to  enter,  as  the  bees  are  sure  to  fall 
on  the  burning  mass,  and  thus  many  will  be  killed  or  maimed.  More- 
over, the  operator  ought  to  be  able  to  regulate  the  amount  of  smoke 
poured  into  the  hive.  Mr.  Cotton,  the  author  of  "My  Bee-Book," 
managed  it  by  having  a  tin  box  made  to  fit  the  nose  of  a  pair  of  bellows, 
in  which  was  placed  a  piece  of  lighted  fungus  about  twice  the  size  of  a 
hen's  eg^.  There  were  two  openings  in  the  box,  one  to  admit  the  nose 
of  the   bellows,  and  the  other  immediately  opposite,  from  which  the 


IIIK  15  EE.  297 

smoke  poured.  The  box  being*  fixed  on  the  nose  of  the  bellows,  and  the 
end  being;  placed  against  the  entrance  of  the  hive,  a  few  vigorous  pnft's 
soon  fill  the  hive  with  the  stnpefving;  smoke,  under  whose  etFccts,  after  a 
brief  buzz  of  indignant  astonishment,  the  bees  are  heard  falling-  as  thic^k 
as  hail,  and  in  a  tew  minutes  all  is  still  within. 

In  performing  the  work  of  fumigation,  many  failures  have  occurred, 
from  setting-  about  the  operation  too  hastily,  or  from  the  non-observ- 
ance of  a  few  rules  that  can  be  easily  remembered,  and  as  easily  put  in 
practice.  In  the  first  place,  great  care  must  be  taken  that  the  smoke 
of  the  fungus  or  other  material  used  for  the  pnrpose  is  not  admitted  into 
the  hive  at  too  high  a  temperature.  If  this  is  the  case,  the  heat  of  the 
smoke  will  in  the  first  place  scorch  and  kill  the  bees,  who  will  rush  to 
the  entrance  of  the  hive  on  the  first  intrusion  of  the  fumigating*  tube,  and 
■will  also  melt  the  wax  of  the  cond\*,  ^nd  do  considerable  mischief.  The 
tube,  therefore,  should  be  a  very  long  one,  and  small  in  diameter.  There 
is  no  hurry  about  the  operation,  work  the  bellows  quite  deliberately, 
and  the  danger  of  burning  the  poor  bees,  or  spoiling  the  combs,  will  be 
avoided.  There  is  hardly  a  more  pitiable  sight  than  to  find  on  turning 
up  the  hive  a  number  of  bees  lying  on  the  board,  with  scorched  and 
shriveled  wings — a  loss  of  no  small  importance,  as  you  will  want  every 
bee  to  set  to  work  immediately,  to  repair  the  devastations  committed  in 
the  hive.  Another  mistake  not  unfrequently  occurs  in  following  Mr. 
Cotton's  directions  too  literally.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  have  the  fumi- 
gating box  made  merely  of  tin,  as  will  most  certainly  be  done  if  that 
order  is  sent  to  a  tinman,  for  the  heat  of  the  ignited  puff-ball  will 
speedily  melt  the  solder,  and  the  whole  apparatus  will  fall  to  pieces.  A 
case  of  this  kind  occurred  very  recently.  The  box  and  tube  were  made 
according  to  order,  the  clay  prepared  for  stopping  the  entrance  of  the 
hive  round  the  tub?*,  the  fungus  was  duly  lighted,  placed  in  the  box,  the 
bellows  fitted,  and  then  vigorously  worked.  Suddenly,  while  the  oper- 
ators wore  complacently  pufting  away  at  the  bellows,  and  congratulatii'g 
themselves  on  securing  both  honey  and  bees  by  this  method,  the  box 
fell  in  pieces,  the  tube  consequently  was  drawn  out  of  the  hive  door,  and 
out  rushed  the  bees  in  a  tumultuous  state  of  indignation,  thereby  putting 
their  would-be  captors  to  an  ignominious  fiight.  So,  lest  you  meet  with 
a  similar  misfortune,  give  particular  ordeis  to  have  the  whole  affair  made 
fire-proof,  and  then  you  may  proceed  v/ithout  the  least  danger.  Of  course 
this  must  all  be  done  some  hours  after  dark,  or  the  bees  who  are  already 
out  will  soon  signify  their  dislike  of  finding  intruders  when  they  return 
to  the  hive.  It  is  also  necessary  to  be  very  quick  in  cutting  out  the 
combs,  as  the  bees  do  not  remain  long  in  their  state  of  torpor  or 
intoxication,  and  are  quite  ready  on  their  revival  tc^employ  their  stings. 
Always  examine  the  combs  that  are  removed,  to  see  if  any  bees  are  left 
in  them,  as  not  unfrequently,  when  they  begin  to  find  that  they  cannot 
overpower  the  vapor,  they  dive  to  the  bottom  of  an  empty  cell,  and 
sometimes  are  so  protected  by  this  precaution,  that  they  revive  ^atln-r 
sooner  than  their  less  fortunate  companions.  The  wax  of  the  combs 
thus  obtained  is  much  whiter  than  if  sulphur  is  used,  and  of  course,  will 
fetch  a  higher  price  in  the  market,  besides  being  free  from  a  slight  tinge 
of  sulphury  flavor,  which  hangs  about  them  for  a  long  time. 
13^^ 


298  DOMESTIC   ANIMALS. 

For  fumigating,  tLe  circular  bellows,  set  in  motion  Ly  a  winch,  are 
much  superior  to  the  double  bellows,  as  a  constaiU  stream  of  smoke  is 
introduced  into  the  hive,  instead  of  a  series  of  puffs.  Mr.  Pettigrew 
recommends  (probably  because  they  can  more  certainly  be  obtained 
when  wanted),  cotton  rags,  tightly  rolled  up  in  the  form  of  a  candle, 
and  applied  in  the  same  way  as  the  fungus.  If  so,  it  will  be  found  ad- 
visable to  steep  the  rags  in  a  solution  of  nitre,  as  otherwise  they  are 
very  apt  to  go  out  before  a  sufficiency  of  smoke  has  issued  from  them. 
The  solution,  however,  must  be  weak  also,  or  it  may  do  mischief  instead 
of  good,  for  ignited  nitre  is  apt  to  send  forth  sparks,  especially  if  it  is 
urged  on  by  a  draught  of  air.  It  may  be  possible  that  ether  or  chloro- 
form may  answer  better  than  either  fungus  or  rags,  but  the  experiments 
do  not  yet  appear  to  have  been  sufficiently  numerous  to  enable  one  to 
speak  with  confidence.  At  all  events,  although  chloroform  and  ether 
may  not  supersede  fungus  and  nitre  in  stupefying  bees,  the  smoke  of 
pufT-ball  threatens  to  supersede  chloroform  and  ether  in  their  anjjestlielic 
power  as  applied  to  human  beings.  We  are  bound  to  observe  that  fu- 
migation may  not  be  altogether  so  harmless  as  is  supposed,  and  there- 
fore should  not  be  used  without  necessity. 

When,  after  applying  the  fumigating  apparatus,  as  has  been  described 
above,  the  stillness  that  reigns  in  the  hive  indicates  that  the  bees  are  in 
a  state  of  insensibility,  tiie  hive  may  then  be  turned  up  for  any  neces- 
sary operations.  If  honey  is  wanted  choose  the  side  combs,  so  as  not 
to  interfere  with  the  brood  in  the  center,  and  be  moderate.  Replace 
the  violated  hive  carefully,  and  the  bees  will  soon  recover  from  their 
state  of  partial  intoxication,  and  set  to  work  to  repair  the  ravages  that 
have  been  made  in  their  stor-'s.  Nor  does  fumigation  injure  the  work- 
ing power  of  the  bees.  Unlike  the  effects  of  alcoholic  .compounds, 
which  when  taken  in  an  overdose,  entirely  prostrate  the  sufferer  for 
some  time,  the  smoke  of  the  fungus  causes  a  very  transient  intoxication, 
which  in  a  few  minutes  passes  aw^ay,  and  the  bees  ai)pear  rather  re- 
freshed than  otherwise,  after  their  involuntary  debauch. 

DRIVIAG. — In  the  hands  of  a  skillful  operator,  driving  will  often  be  found 
useful,  as  it  partly  supersedes  the  necessity  of  fumigation.  By  driving, 
the  bee-master  induces  his  winged  auxiliaries  to  change  their  position, 
by  working  on  their  fears  instead  of  stupefying  what  brains  they  have. 
The  best  method  of  driving  bees  will  be  found  in  the  pages  of  Devan, 
who  appears  to  think  very  highly  of  the  operation.  "Toward  the 
dusk  of  the  evening,  when  the  family  will  be  all,  or  nearly  all  at  home, 
and  no  annoyance  be  experienced  from  stranger-bees,  let  the  hive,  or 
box,  be  raised  gently  from  its  floor-board,  and  supported  on  three  thin 
wedges;  let  an  assistant  be  at  hand,  provided  with  a  tobacco-pipe,  or 
the  fumigating  box  and  bellows,  from  one  of  which  at  the  moment  of 
raising  the  hive,  let  a  few  whiffs  of  tobacco  smoke  be  blown  into  it  all 
round,  and  a  few  more  after  it  has  been  raised.  This  expedient  will 
soon  iflduce  the  bees  to  ascend  and  congregate  at  the  upper  part  of  the 
hive.  It  is  next  to  be  inverted  steadily  on  a  small  tub  or  peck  measure, 
puffed  again,  and  then  quickly  and  accurately  surmounted  by  an  empty 
hive  or  box,  as  nearly  of  its  own  diameter  as  possible.  After  securely 
closing  the  two  hives,  by  tying  a  cloth  firmly  round  them  above  and 


THE   BEE.  2P9 

below  the  junction,  so  that  not  a  bee  may  escape,  it  will  be  proper  to 
place  an  empty  decoy  hive  upon  tlie  stand  where  tlic  tiill  liive  stood, 
to  amuse  any  stragg-Jing  bees  tliat  may  have  stayed  out  late,  or  that  niav 
escape  (hirincr  the  operation.  The  conjoined  hives  are  then  to  be  removed 
into  a  darkened  room,  in  the  manner  ah'eady  described,  when,  if  the  hive 
be  well  peopled,  and  the  weather  warm,  by  drumming  at  first  gently,  and 
then  smartly  with  the  open  hands  or  a  couple  of  sticks  on  the  outside 
of  the  hive,  the  bees  will  be  so  alarmed,  that  in  a  few  minutes  they  will 
have  ascended  into  the  super.  The  ascent  may  always  be  ascertained 
by  the  humming  noise  attending  it.  The  impulse  thus  communicated 
to  the  bees  should  be  given  in  the  direction  of  the  combs,  and  by  no 
means  upon  those  parts  of  the  hive  which  are  opposite  to  their  sides,  as 
it  might  separate  them  from  their  attachments." 

"The  exchange  of  habitation  having  been  etFectcd,  the  ulterior  pro- 
ceedings must  be  regulated  by  the  object  in  view.  l(  it  be  wished  to 
have  possession  of  the  full  hive,  it  will  be  simply  necessary  to  leave  tlie 
decoy-hive  in  its  place,  and  after  covering  the  honey-combs  with  a  cloth 
to  prevent  them  from  being  scented,  to  carry  the  bees  with  their  tem- 
porary abode  toward  tlieir  usual  place  of  entrance,  when,  by  spreadinij^ 
a  cloth  on  the  ground,  or  on  a  table,  all  the  bees  m;iy  he  dislodged  ani] 
made  to  fall  upon  it,  by  a  smart  stroke  with  the  hands  u])on  the  top  of 
the  hive,  and  if  one  side  of  the  cloth  be  raised  to  the  resting-board,  the 
bees  will  gradually  ascend,  and  reoccupy  their  original  station." 

Driving  is  made  use  of  by  the  Persian  villagers,  whose  hives  are  made 
in  a  cylindrical  form,  and  built  horizontally  into  the  walls  of  their  houses, 
the  bees'  entrance  being  outside  the  wall,  and  a  fnovable  door  inside, 
the  end  of  the  hive  projecting  more  than  a  foot  into  the  room.  WhcJi 
the  villager  wishes  for  some  honey,  he  drums  smartlv  upon  the  end  Of 
the  hive  which  projects  into  his  room,  which  causes  the  bees  to  withdraw 
to  the  other  end.  The  circular  lid  is  then  quickly  opened,  as  many 
combs  as  he  wishes  for  cut  out,  and  the  lid  closed  again. 

No  one  should  be  without  spare  hives  or  boxes  ready  to  be  used  when 
required,  even  if  they  do  not  at  the  outset  tit  up  a  complete  a|)paratus. 
Thus— 

1.  A  spare  box  or  hive  will  be  ready  to  receive  a  swarm  obtained  in 
the  ordinary  manner,  with  all  its  picturesque  but  inconvenient  acces- 
sories :  as,  long  watching  to  know  the  moment  of  swarming;  long  riin- 
nings,  perhaps,  to  overtake  the  vagrant  young  colony,  over  hill  and 
valley,  brake  and  brier,  and  amid  interminable  ear-splitting  tumult,  which 
the  bees  have  the  bad  taste,  it  is  supposed,  to  like  ;  and  the  race  o'l'-n 
ending  in  seeing  the  w^hole  cluster  safely  deposited  in  a  neighl tor's 
apiary,  who  swears  it  went  from  his  hive.  If  you  wish  to  avoid  all  that 
kind  of  thing,  do  your  best  to  give  the  bees  no  motive  for  such  wander- 
ings, and  every  conceivable  reason  to  stay  where  they  are.  Put  a  decoy- 
hive  ready,  with  a  delicious  piece  of  comb  in  it  (an  old  hive,  with  its 
own  combs,  will  be  still  more  attractive),  and  it  is  most  likely  the  scouts 
sent  out  to  explore  will  return  with  such  a  glowing  account  of  the  land 
of  milk  and  honey  they  have  discovered,  that  the  swarm  will  be  im- 
patient to  be  off  and  take  possession.  This  must,  however,  be  done 
with  great  care,  and  the  decoy-hive  not  placed  in  the  air  too  soon,  as 


300  ix>]\n:sTic  animals. 

its  seductive  stores  will  not  only  attract  the  bees  who  are  intended  to  he 
its  legitimate  occupants,  but  also  wasps,  hornets,  and  robber-bees  of  all 
descriptions,  so  that  the  swarm  will  have  to  inaugurate  their  entrance 
by  a  battle. 

"  2.  Bees  always  will  settle  themselves  as  soon  as  possible  after  swarm- 
ing, and  if  they  have  not  already  determined  upon  a  new  habitation,  will 
fix' themselves  in  the  first  place  that  they  think  will  suit  them.  There 
are  many  instances  known  of  bees  having  swarmed  unexpectedly,  and 
after  escaping  from  their  former  owners,  having  made  their  habitation  in 
a  hollow  tree  in  a  wood,  or  in  the  roof  of  some  deserted  hovel.  There 
have  been  several  instances  of  bees  choosing  to  make  their  nests  in  the 
roof  or  tower  of  a  church,  and  an  instance  came  very  recently  under  the 
writer's  notice.  For  several  years  the  congregation  had  been  consider- 
ably annoyed  by  the  presence  of  bees  during  the  service,  but  had  made 
no  "particular  endeavors  to  rid  themselves  of  the  plague.  One  summer, 
however,  brought  with  it  such  an  increase  of  bees  that  it  was  deemed 
necessary  to  institute  an  inquiry;  for  the  winged  intruders  came  in  such 
numbers,  and  buzzed  about  so  loudly,  and  frightened  the  juvenile  portion 
of  the  congregation  to  such  a  degree,  that  tlie  service  could  not  proceed 
with  any  comfort.  After  some  seai'ch,  a  hole  was  discovered  in  the 
roof  of  the  church,  through  which  the  bees  were  constantly  passing. 
This  was  accordingly  stopped  up,  and  the  workmen  retired,  congratu- 
latino-  themselves  on  getting  rid  of  their  winged  enemies  so  easily.  They 
were,  however,  quite  mistaken,  for  the  bees  descended  in  undiminished 
numbers.  The  roof  was  again  examined,  and  found  to  be  in  such  bad 
repair,  that  the  colony  of  bees  who  had  taken  up  their  residence  be- 
tween the  roof  and  the  leads  had  found  numerous  openings,  which 
they  had  enlarged  for  their  own  purposes.  How  to  eject  this  formidable 
band  was  now  the  subject  of  deep  consultation.  Sulphur-smoke  would 
not  answer,  because  it  would  soon  pass  out  through  the  apertures  in  the 
roof,  and  besides,  there  was  a  very  prevalent  alarm  lest  the  church  should 
be  set  on  fire.  At  last  a  veteran  apiarian  was  sent  for  from  the  next 
villasie.  He  immediately  planted  a  ladder  against  the  exterior  wall,  and 
examined  the  stones  until  he  discovered  the  entrance  to  the  bees'  habi- 
tation. It  was  a  mere  fissure  between  two  stones,  where  some  of  the 
mortar  had  fallen  out,  and  the  remainder  been  extracted  by  the  bees 
for  their  own  convenience.  After  surveying  the  prospect  for  some  time, 
he  declared  that  a  stone  must  be  taken  out  of  the  wall  before  the  bees 
could  be  dislodged,  and  immediately  began  to  loosen  the  stone  which 
held  already  been  partly  deprived  of  its  mortar.  The  bees,  of  course, 
were  highly  indignant  at  such  an  assault,  but  the  man  coolly  proceeded 
with  his  work,  not  heeding  their  anger  in  the  least.  When  the  stone 
had  been  completely  loosened,  he  laid  by  the  crowbar,  and  deliberately 
pulled  it  out  with  his  hands.  Out  rushed  a  perfect  cloud  of  bees  full 
in  his  face;  but  he  quietly  laid  the  stone  down,  and  contented  himself 
with  brushing  them  otf  his  face  until  he  had  made  further  investigations. 
All  the  spc^ctators  took  to  flight  at  the  first  appearance  of  the  enraged 
bees;  but  their  imperturbable  enemy  remained  quietly  at  his  post,  and 
after  descending  the  ladder  pulled  some  eight  or  ten  bees  out  of  his 
hair,  and  remarked  that  they  had  not  stung  hjro  so  much  as  he  expected. 


THE    BEE.  301 

It  turned  out  that  tlie  man  was  almost  invulnerable  to  stinrrs ;  and  al- 
thongh  several  dozen  stings  or  so  were  in  his  face,  they  did  not  leave 
the  slightest  mark,  and  certainly  did  not  appear  to  inconvenience  him 
in  the  very  smallest  degree,  lie  afterward  m  the  same  cool  manner 
extracted  the  greater  part  of  the  comhs,  and  the  bees,  taking  the  hint, 
speedily  evacuated  the  premises.  Tiiere  was  but  little  honey,  but 
abundance  of  black,  worn-out  combs,  and  plenty  of  young  bees  in  every 
stage  of  advancement.  It  is  said  that  if  any  one  is  repeatedly  stung  by 
scorpions,  the  pain  diminishes  each  time,  and  that  at  last  the  system  is 
entirely  uninjured  by  it.  An  English  naturalist  was  bold  enough  to  try 
the  experiment  upon  himself,  and  found  that  after  he  had  been  stung 
four  or  five  times  the  pain  was  comparatively  trifling.  Perhaps  the 
same  may  be  the  case  with  regard  to  the  bee-stings,  and  the  old  man 
just  mentioned  possibly  owed  his  immunity  to  his  frequent  experience, 
as  Mithridates  was  said  to  have  completely  fortified  himself  against 
poisons,  by  gradually  imbuing  his  system  with  them. 

3.  Ado})ting  as  a  rule  the  non-disturbance  in  any  serious  way  of  your 
stock  hive,  so  that  honey  and  brood  shall  there  at  least  flourish  together, 
when  you  think  it  is  full  (a  solid  sound  from  the  hive,  and  a  great  long 
continued  buzz  fi'om  the  bees  in  answer  to  a  tap,  is  good  evidence  of 
that  state),  attach  your  side-box,  open  the  communication,  and  make 
the  bees  enter  and  leave  by  the  entrance  to  the  side  box,  which  you  will 
do  by  closing  up  the  enti-ance  to  the  other  at  night  when  the  bees  are 
all  at  home.  A  little  piece  of  comb,  fastened  at  the  top  of  the  side- 
box,  may  be  at  once  a  useful  hint  and  a  temptation  to  the  bees.  This 
box  is  to  be  kept  solely  for  honey-combs  by  ventilation,  which  prevents 
the  queen  from  laying  eggs  in  it.  When  the  heat  in  the  side-box  is 
70°,  you  should  admit  air  through  the  top  by  means  of  a  piece  of  tin 
pierced  with  holes.  A  draft  through  the  liive,  from  the  entrance  to  the 
roof,  now  takes  place.  This  must  not  be  done  until  you  see  the  bees 
have  fairly  passed  the  Rubicon,  and  have  done  and  ventured  too  much 
to  be  inclined  to  retreat  to  the  stock-hive.  When  the  box  is  full,  you 
can  take  it  away,  and  replace  it  emptied,  or  by  another,  or  by  opening 
a  communication  to  a  similar  side-box  on  the  opposite  side,  as  in  Mr. 
Grant's  hive.  The  bees  in  it  will  soon  flock  to  the  queen  in  the  parent 
Live.-  This  arrangement  prevents  swarming,  or  at  least  has  a  great 
tendency  to  prevent  it;  as  the  bees  have  more  room  given  to  them  just 
when  they  want  it.  It  also  raises  the  stock  itself  to  the  highest  state 
of  pro-peritv,  as  only  the  sui'plus  honey  is  taken  away,  and  the  brood  is 
not  interfered  with. 

4.  Ibit  if  you  wish  to  have  an  increase  of  stock  without  the  incon- 
venience of  natural  swarming,  you  may  easily  do  so  by  treating  the 
side-box  exactly  the  same  as  the  chief  one — that  is,  by  leaving  it  un 
ventilated.  Brood  as  well  as  honey  will  then  be  deposited  in  it,  and 
Tou  have  onlv  to  watch  for  a  favorable  opportunity  of  securing  two 
stocks.  This  should  be  a  little  before  the  natural  period  of  swarming, 
of  which  the  signs  are,  clustering  on  the  outside,  activity  and  commotion 
among  the  drones,  inactivity  of  the  workers,  portentous  silence  in  ihe 
hive  in  the  day  (during  which  the  prudent  bees  are  supposed  to  be  fill- 
ing their  pockets  with  provisions  for  their  journey),  and  a  singular  hum- 


302  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

ming  noise  at  niglit,  presnmod  to  come  from  the  young  qnecn-becs  an- 
nouncing their  advent.  But  these  warnings  apply  less  to  the  first  than 
to  the  subsequent  swarms.  However,  there  is  a  pretty  good  rule  for 
effective  action.  As  soon  as  you  find  the  side-box  is  nearly  full,  watch 
for  an  opportunity  when  the  queen,  with  about  two-thirds  of  the  bees 
of  the  colony,  is  in  the  side-box,  then  cut  off  the  communication  with, 
and  remove,  the  parent  liive  three  or  four  feet  distant,  and  put  an 
empty  hive  in  its  exact  position.  The  returning  bees  will  fiock  into  th-3 
side-box  as  before,  and  that  hive  is  done  with.  As  to  the  parent-hive, 
the  nurse-bees  will  take  every  care  of  the  brood  in  it;  in  fact,  they  will 
be  just  as  though  a  swarm  with  the  queen  had  left  them;  and  will  pro- 
ceed w^ith  due  equanimity  to  supply  her  place  in  the  approved  way. 
This  is  the  mode  practiced  with  success  by  Mr.  Grant,  and  may  be  varied 
according  to  circumstances.  For  instance,  if  the  queen  should  not 
have  been  left  in  the  side-box  with  the  greater  portion  of  the  bees,  and 
has,  therefore,  been  removed  with  the  parent  hive,  the  rest  must  be  in 
effect  the  same,  as  regards  the  two  hives ;  most  of  the  bees  then  might 
leave  the  side-box  and  flock  to  the  queen  in  the  parent-hive  ;  but  if  there 
be  a  brood  in  the  side-box,  it  appears  that  the  nurse-bees  will  not  de- 
sert it,  and,  therefore,  there  are  still  two  communities,  and  both  well 
provided  with  all  they  require  for  a  new  start  in  life. 

5.  There  is  also  practiced,  it  is  said  v»ith  great  profit,  a  more  snmm  jry 
way  of  proceeding  to  make  an  artificial  swarm,  wliich  consists  in  fumi- 
gating the  bees,  in  order  to  divide  them  into  two  bodies  as  before.  Ti)e 
period  chosen  is  from  the  beginning  of  May  to  the  middle  of  July,  and 
when  there  are  as  many  bees  on  tiie  boaid  at  the  bottom  as  will  fill  a 
thirty-two  (eight  and  a  half  inches  by  six)  Vized  flower-pot.  To  ascertain 
this,  blow  a  little  smoke  into  them  and  turn  up  the  hive.  Before  com- 
mencing operations,  place  the  hive  intended  for  the  new  colony  on  the 
stand,  with  a  bit  of  comb  in  its  roof,  and  a  stick  across  the  middle  to  aid  in 
the  support  of  the  combs.  If  you  are  short  of  hives,  this  one  may  be  used 
instead  of  an  additional  eni})ty  hive  in  performing  the  operations  about 
to  be  described.  But  the  bit  of  comb  may  be  somewhat  in  the  way. 
The  bees  having  been  stupefied  by  the  fumigation,  the  hive  is  turned  up, 
its  top  rested  on  the  ground,  and  an  empty  hive  placed  over  it  of  exactly 
the  same  shape  (at  the  edges  at  least),  and  a  cloth  tied  round  the  circle 
of  junction.  Then  tap  or  drum  gently  at  the  sides  of  the  two  hives  for 
about  ten  minutes,  in  which  time  probably  about  two-thirds  of  the  bees 
will  have  ascended  int.o  the  upper  hive.  The  queen,  fortunately  for  tlie 
operation,  is  generally  one  of  the  first  either  to  run  away  from  or  to 
confront  the  danger  (we  know  not  which  it  is)  by  ascending.  If  your 
hive  have  a  glass  window,  as  all  should  have,  you  can  see  when  about 
the  right  proportion  have  ascended  ;  if  not,  you  must  guess  with  the  aid 
above  given  of  the  knowledge  of  the  ordinary  duration  of  time  occupied. 
Now  take  oft"  the  top  hive  and  reverse  it  also  on  the  ground,  while  you 
make  sure  the  queen  is  there,  throwing,  meanwhile,  the  cloth  (that  you 
have  removed)  over  the  exposed  bottom  of  the  parent  hive.  If  the  queen 
be  there  (and  she  is  easily  distinguishable)  you  have  only  to  shake  queen 
and  heee  into  the  prepared  hive  on  the  board,  and  restoVe  the  parent 
colony  also  to  the  ordinary  resting-place,  where  the  bees  will  soon  rear 


Till!:  BKK.  303 

a  new  quocn  for  it.  If  tlic  queen  be  not  there,  tlicn  repeat  the  process 
with  the  prepared  hive,  and  so  you  will  catch  her  at  Last.  You  can  then 
return  the  first  batch  of  bees  that  were  removed  either  to  the  parent 
hive  or  to  the  prepared  hive,  by  simply  shaking  them  into  the  one  which 
most  needs  them. 

Old  hives  thus  deprived  of  their  queens,  and  made  to  rear  new  ones, 
involve  anotlier  important  advantao-e.  In  twenty-one  days  the  entire 
brood  will  be  reared,  no  fresli  brood  having;  been  deposited  (througli  the 
absence  of  an  old  queen),  and  the  young  queen  not  having  begun  to  lay, 
which  they  do  in  about  ten  days  after  they  leave  the  cell.  Here,  then, 
where  the  hives  are  heavy,  say  forty  or  more  pounds  in  weight,  is  an  oppor- 
tunity of  removing  the  bees  (by  fumigation)  into  a  new  hive,  and  selling. 
the  contents  of  the  old  one.  The  honey  is  thus  earlier  than  usual  in  the 
market,  and  fetches  a  higher  price.  Weak  swarms  should  invariably  be 
joined  either  to  strong  ones,  or  to  each  other,  and  as  soon  as  possible 
after  swarming.  It  is  only  a  strong  community  that  can  so  successfully 
establish  themselves  before  winter,  as  to  be  in  no  danger  from  its  severity. 
This  junction  may  be  performed  by  fumigation,  and  taking  away  one 
of  the  queens.  A  stock  without  a  queen  may  by  the  same  means  be 
added  to  one  that  is  more  fortunate  :  and  this  applies  even  to  the 
restoration  of  a  swarm  to  its  own  parent  hive  if  there  be  ample  room 
in  it. 

We  have  said  nothing  of  the  plan  of  annually  destroying  the  bees, 
for  it  is  almost  an  insult  to  our  readers  to  suppose  they  would  appiove 
of  so  senseless  and  unprofitable  as  well  as  cruel  a  practice.  It  is  quite 
true  that  thus  all  the  honey  that  is  made  in  a  season  may  be  obtained 
at  once,  just  in  the  same  way  that  all  the  golden  eggs  of  the  goose  in 
the  fable  were  to  be  obtained  at  once.  And  if  this  wholesale  deprivation 
be  desired,  it  is  perfectly  obtainable  without  destroying  the  bees,  by 
simply  fumigating  tliem,  and  removing  them  to  another  hive.  And 
if  you  don't  choose  to  feed  the  bees  during  the  winter,  let  somebody  else 
have  them  that  will.  It  is  possible,  in  a  favorable  late  season,  tliey  may 
not  need  any  assistance.  At  all  events,  let  it  be  the  golden  maxim 
of  bee  management  never  to  allow  a  single  bee  to  be  injured  if  you  can 
help  it. 

We  close  our  article  upon  bees  with  the  quaint  story  of  an  o  d  English 
apiarian. — "  In  or  about  the  year  1717,  one  of  my  swarms  settling  among 
the  close-twisted  branches  of  some  codling-trees,  and  not  to  be  got  into 
an  hive  without  more  help,  my  maid-servant,  hired  into  the  family  tlie 
Michaelmas  before,  being  in  the  garden,  very  officiously  offered  her 
assistance,  so  far  as  to  hold  the  hive  while  I  dislodged  the  bees,  she  beiisg 
little  apprehensive  of  wiiat  followed. 

"  Having  never  been  acquainted  with  bees,  and  likewise  afraid,  she 
put  a  linen  cloth  over  her  iiead  and  shoulders,  concluding  that  would 
be  a  sufficient  guard,  and  secure  her  from  their  swords.  A  few  of  the 
bees  fell  into  the  hive  ;  some  upon  the  ground  ;  but  the  main  body  of 
them  upon  the  cloth  which  covered  her  upper  garments. 

"  No  sooner  had  I  taken  the  hive  out  ot  her  hands,  but  in  a  terrible 
fright  and  suiprise,  she  cried  out  the  bees  were  got  under  the  covering, 
crowding  up  towards  her  breast  and  face,  which  immediately  put  her 


304  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

into  a  trembling  posture.  \Yhen  I  perceived  the  veil  was  of  no  further 
service,  she  at  last  gave  rae  leave  to  remove  it.  This  done,  a  most 
affecting  spectacle  presented  itself  to  the  view  of  all  the  company,  filling 
me  with  the  deepest  distress  and  concern,  as  I  thought  myself  the 
unhappy  instrument  of  draw i no;  her  into  so  great  and  imminent  hazard 
of  lier  life,  which  now  so  manifestly  lay  at  stake. 

"It  is  not  in  my  power  to  tell  the  confusion  and  dis'ress  of  mind  I 
was  in,  from  the  awful  apprehensions  it  raised  ;  and  her  dread  and  terror 
in  such  circumstances  may  reasonably  be  supposed  to  be  much  more. 
Every  moment  she  was  at  the  point  of  retiring  with  all  the  bees  about 
her.  '  Vain  thought !  to  escape  by  flight.  She  might  have  left  the 
place  indeed,  but  could  not  the  company,  and  the  remedy  would  have 
been  much  worse  than  the  disease.  Had  she  enraged  them,  all  resist- 
ance had  been  vain,  and  nothing  less  than  her  life  would  have  atoned 
for  the  olfensc.  And  now  to  have  had  that  life  (in  so  much  jeopardy) 
insured,  what  would  I  not  have  given. 

"To  prevent,  therefore,  a  flight  which  must  have  been  attended  with 
so  fatal  a  consequence,  I  spared  not  to  urge  all  the  arguments  I  could 
think  of,  and  used  the  most  affectionate  entreaties,  begging  her,  with  all 
the  earnestness  in  my  power,  to  stand  her  ground,  and  keep  her  present 
posture;  in  order  to  which,  I  gave  encouragement  to  hope,  in  a  little 
space,  for  a  full  discharge  from  her  disagreeable  companions;  on  the 
other  hand,  assuring  her  she  had  no  other  chance  for  her  life.  I  was, 
through  necessity,  constantly  reasoning  with  her,  or  else  beseeching  and 
encouraging  her. 

"I  began  to  search  among  them  for  the  queen,  now  got  in  a  great 
body  upon  her  breast,  about  her  neck,  and  up  to  her  chin.  I  presently 
saw  her,  and  immediately  seized  her,  taking  her  from  the  crowd,  with 
some  of  the  commons  in  company  with  her,  and  put  them  together  into 
the  hive.  Here  I  watched  her  for  some  time,  and  as  I  did  not  observe 
that  she  came  out,  I  conceived  an  expectation  of  seeing  the  whole  body 
quickly  abandon  their  settlement;  but  instead  of  tiiat,  1  soon  observed 
them,  to  m  v  greater  sorrow  and  surprise,  gathering  clos^er  together  without 
the  least  signal  for  departing.  Upon  this  I  immediately  reflected,  that 
either  there  must  be  another  sovereign,  or  that  the  same  was  returned. 
I  directly  commenced  a  second  sear^di,  and  in  a  short  time,  with  a  most 
agreeable  surprise,  found  a  second  or  the  same;  she  stroA'e,  by  entering 
further  into  the  crowd,  to  escape  me,  which  I  was  fully  determined 
against;  and  apprehending  her  without  any  further  ceremony,  or  the 
least  apology,  I  reconducted  her,  with  a  great  number  of  the  populace, 
into  the  hive.  And  now  the  melancholy  scene  began  to  change,  and 
give  way  to  one  infinitely  more  agreeable  and  pleasant, 

"  The  bees,  presently  missing  their  queen,  began  to  dislodge  and  re- 
pair to  the  hive,  crowding  into  it  in  multitudes,  and  in  the  greatest 
hurrv  imaginable.  And  in  the  space  of  two  or  three  minutes  tlie  maid 
had  not  a  single  bee  about  her,  neither  had  she  so  much  as  one  sting,  a 
small  number  of  which,  would  have  quicd^ly  stopped  her  breath. 

"How  inexpressible  the  pleasure  which  succeeded  her  past  fears! 
"What  joy  appeared  in  every  countenance  upon  so  signal  a  deliverance  ! 
and  what  mutual  congratulations  were  heard!     I  never  call  to  mind  the 


THE    BEE. 


305 


wonderful  escape  without  a  secret  and  very  sensible  pleasure.  1  hope 
never  to  see  such  another  sight,  though  I  triumph  in  this  most  noble 
stand  au'l  glorious  victory." 

HIVES  AAD  BOXES.— A^arious  improved  hives  and  boxes  have,  from 
time  to  time,  been  invented  and  more  or  less  used,  giving  greater  or  less 
satisiaction  ;  vet  among  them  alt,  we  regard  E.  W.  Phelps's  Combination 
Hive"^  as  one  of  the  best.  It  was  first  patented  in  1852,  and  during  the 
past  vear  has  been  grcatlv  improved.  It  is  true  that  his  hives  are  jjo- 
tcnted,  and  many  are  disposed  to  look  with  disfavor  upon  all  patents. 
llowc^'ver,  we  are  too  much  indebted  to  the  protection  afforded  by  our 
patent  laws,  for  the  many  and  important  inventions  in  all  the  arts  of  lite, 
to  render  any  refutation  necessary  of  the  futile  objection. 

Fm.  1. 


PDELPS'S   COMBINATION   HIVE. 

These  hives  are  made  in  four  diff.-rent  forms  and  styles,  to  snit  the 
views  and  wants  of  persons  in  different  locations  and  circumstances, 
—the  prices  varying  from  ^2.50  to  $1  5.00.  The  latter  is  a  "  non-swarm- 
incr  hive,"  made"'  with  a  mahogany  or  rosewood  case  in  imitation  ot  a 
beautiful  wash-stand,  and  intended  to  be  set  in  a  gentleman's  ofhce  or 
dwelling.     The  others  include  swarming  and  dividing  hives,  in  ditierent 

*  These  hives  are  manufoctured  at  Elizabeth,  New  Jersey,  where  iuformalion 
concerning  them  can  be  obtained. 


306  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

styles  and  finish — somo  with  boxes,  others  composed  of  ^^  improved^ 
7novahlc\  sectional  frame s^^""  and  others  combining  the  two  principles — 
nsing  a  square  box  for  the  brood  hive  and  "sectional  frames,"  and  small 
honey  boxes  for  obtaining  the  surph^s  honey. 

We  believe  the  following  illustrations  and  descriptions  of  these  hives 
w^ill  be  acceptable  to  our  readens. 

Fig.  1  is  a  hive  containing  the  two  principles  combined  ;  with  the  top 
and  back  opened,  showing  the  internal  arrangement.  The  boxes  g  and 
H,  with  the  honey  boxes  i  and  j  on  the  top,  represent  the  "  Combination 
Ilive^''  patented  1852.  That  part  occupied  with  the  "  Sectional  Frames,''^ 
AAAA  is  the  late  improvement  of  Mr.  Phelps,  also  combining  the  two 
impi'ovements,  by  using  one  box  (h)  for  the  brood-hive^  with  three 
or  four  of  the  frames,  aaa,  placed  by  the  side  (as  seen  in  the  engra- 
ving), with  communications  from  the  brood-hivu  to  the  frames,  which 
are  easily  opened  and  closed  at  will,  by  means  of  a  thin  slide  between 
the  apartments.  The  advantages  secured  by  the  use  of  the  small  frames, 
in  the  place  of  a  large  honey  box,  as  formerly  used,  is,  in  obtaining  the 
surplus  honey  in  a  much  more  desirable  condition,  either  for  family  use, 
or  for  market:  as  it  is  stored  in  the  small  frames  in  separa^  pieces,  five 
or  six  inches  square,  in  which  condition  it  is  taken  from  the  hive  with- 
out cutting  or  marring  the  comb:^,  and  can  be  kept  in  the  frames  until 
used. 

The  arrangement  for  freeing  the  honey  and  frames  from  the  bees  is 
a  matter  worthy  of  note,  as  all  that  is  necessary  to  be  done  is,  to  close 
the  communication  between  the  apartrnents  with  the  slides,  and  insert  a 
long  tin  exit  tube  in  the  front  of  the  hive,  so  that  the  bees  must  pass  out 
throuyli  the  tubi\  from  the  apartments  containing  the  honey-frames,  and 
in  returning  to  the  hive,  will  enter  the  brood  apartment  through  a  more 
open  space.  In  this  way  the  bees  are  soon  cleared  from  the  honey, 
leaving  it  free  for  removal,  without  resorting  to  smoking,  driving,  etc. 

The  main  brood-hive  (h)  is  occupied  by  the  bees  as  their  permanent 
residence,  and  is  about  one  foot  square  in  the  clear,  in  the  hives  as  now 
made,  it  is  divided  into  two  equal  parts,  and  joined  at  the  center  by 
means  of  small  dowels  of  wire,  so  as  to  be  separated  at  will.  In  each 
apartment  there  is  cither  a  sectional  frame ^  or  guide  bars,  attached  at 
the  adjoining  edges,  in  which  the  bees  construct  their  combs,  parallel 
with  the  separating  joint,  so  that  either  half  can  be  removed  at  will, 
without  cutting  or  marring  the  combs,  while  at  the  same  time  there  is 
no  partition  in  the  hive  to  separate  the  combs  or  bees;  consequently, 
tliey  construct  their  brood-combs  equally  in  each  half  of  the  hive,  and 
when  cither  is  removed,  there  is  a  certainty  of  obtaining  about  one  halt 
of  th.e  brood  combs — an  advantage  not  secured  in  any  other  arrange- 
ment that  has  come  under  our  notice. 

The  tops  of  these  hives  are  so  constructed  that  by  means  of  a  lato 
improvement  the  bees  cannot  construct  their  combs  across  the  frames  or 
bars.  This  is  a  very  important  feature  in  these  hives,  for,  unless  the 
combs  are  constructed  straight  on  the  frames  or  har?,  and  parallel  with  the 
joint  of  separation, the  hive  could  not  be  taken  apart  without  marring  the 
combs  and  injurinir  the  bees.  It  is  also  very  important,  in  connection 
with  the  "  movable  frames,''  ;is  here  much  diuiculty  has  been  experienced; 


THE    BEE. 


307 


and  in  nnmerons  instances  the  "  movable  frames,"  as  constructed  in  other 
hives,  have  been  rendered  cntirehj  useless^  as  far  as  removing  the  combs 
is  concerned,  on  account  of  tlie  bees  building  their  combs  across  them, 
fastening  them  all  together.  It  will  be  observed,  that  while  the  bees 
are  altogether  in  this  ''''dividing-hive,^''  the  sam.e  as  in  any  square  box- 
hive,  and  occupy  the  central  part  with  their  brood-combs,  as  is  their 
custom,  either  part  can  be  removed  at  will  to  obtain  a  portion  of  the 
honey  or  the  old  brood  combs  ;  or,  the  colony  may  be  divided,  at  the 
proper  season,  and  stocks  multiplied  without  the  trouble  and  risk  attend- 
ing swarming,  whenever  there  is  a  sufficient  quantity  of  bees  to  justify  it 


Fig.  3, 


Fig.  4. 


Fig.  2  is  a  side  view  of  one  of  the  frames  (a)  taken  out.  Inside  of 
this  are  four  smaller  frames  (eeee),  each  one  of  which  is  about  six 
inches  square.  The  frame  a  is  now  dispensed  with,  and  a  more 
simple  and  cheap  manner  is  employed  of  connecting  the  ^^  sectional 
frames''''  by  means  of  small  wire  hooks,  thereby  saving  the  space  occu- 
pied by  the  large  frame,  and  the  expense  of  making  it. 

Fig.  3  is  one  of  the  sectional  frames  taken  out. 

Fig.  4  shows  several  of  the  smaller  frames  eee,  arranged  in  a 
box  to  be  placed  on  the  top  of  the  hive  when  desired.  In  operating 
with  the  bees,  the  frames  can  be  removed,  replaced,  or  shifted,  as  cir- 
cumstances may  require. 

We  think  every  practical  bee-keeper  will  see  at  once  the  advantage 
secured  by  the  use  of  these  small  frames,  over  the  large  movable  frame 
as  constructed  by  others,  for  the  honey  taken  from  the  hive,  in  the  large 
frames,  is  in  combs  some  twelve  inches  square,  very  inconvenient  to 
handle  or  take  to  market,  while  in  the  small  frames,  the  honey  is  in  the 
most  beautiful  and  convenient  form  possible,  to  use  in  the  family,  or 
retail  in  market;  being  in  separate  pieces  about  five  inches  square, 
weighing  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  pounds  per  frame,  in  which  condi- 
tion it  may  be  kept  until  required  for  use;  and  one  comb  used  at  a  time, 
without  moving  others,  lie  also  manufactures  a  plain  low-priced  rio}i- 
s?/'(7r7?;/??_(7Aa'e,  the  case  constructed  the  same  as  shown  in  the  engraving, 
only  longer  and  higher,  to  afford  ample  space  for  all  the  bees  to  labi>r 
and  store  honey  in  one  apartment.  The  interior  of  this  hive  is  com- 
posed entirely  of  "sectional  frames,"  placed  side  by  side  and  one  above 
the  other,  three  or  four  tiers  high,  to  the  number  of  one  hundred  or 
more  of  the  sinall  frames,  with  no  partitions  or  divisions  between  them, 
where  the  bees  all  labor  in  a  mass,  storing  the  honey  in  the  frames; 
when  at  the  c'ose  of  the  honey  season  it  may  be  removed  in  the  frames 


308  DOMESTIC     AXTMALS. 

witliont  moving  the  combs,  or  injury  or  exposure  to  the  bcos.  This 
hive  is  so  constructed,  that,  if  desired,  the  bees  may  be  confined  to  a 
space  of  one  foot  square,  and  the  hive  converted  into  a  swarming  liive. 

The  hives  are  all  well  ventilated  at  top  and  bottom,  and  the  bottom 
being  attached  with  butts  and  buttons,  is  easily  let  down  and  cleaned, 
without  disturbing  the  bees.  There  is  also  a  most  ingenious  and  effect- 
ual device  for  destroying  the  bee-moth,  attached  to  the  bottom  of  the 
liive,  affording  the  moth  or  worms  a  most  convenient  haihor,  or  hiding- 
place  in  which  they  are  sure  to  secrete  themselves,  when  the  trap  can 
be  withdrawn  and  the  worms  destroyed  without  opening  the  hive  or 
disturbing  the  bees. 

A  "  non-swarming  kive,''^  combining  the  foregoing  advantages  has  long 
been  sought  for,  as  there  are  many  persons  who  have  never  kept  bees, 
that  would  gladly  do  so,  if  swarming  and  the  trouble  attending  it  could 
be  avoided.  And  as  the  backs  of  these  hives  are  glass,  they  afford  a 
good  opportunity  to  observe  the  operations  of  the  bees  without  exposure 
to  them.  It  is  an  interesting  sight  to  observe  a  good  populous  colony 
of  "busy  bees"  at  their  labors  in  the  hive,  during  the  season  forgather- 
ing honey,  and  the  pleasure  is  increased  by  the  reflection  that  we  are 
to  share  with  them  in  the  products  of  their  labors. 

Another  important  advantage  which  these  hives  possess  over  those  in 
common  use,  is,  that  the  tops  are  composed  of  frames,  or  bars,  on  which 
the  combs  are  attached,  admitting  a  free  circulation  of  air  between  all 
the  combs,  so  that  all  the  moisture  and  vapor,  caused  by  the  breath  and 
warmth  of  the  bees  escapes  freely  up  between  th-em,  keeping  then)  dry 
and  healthy,  and  free  from -mildew  or  mould  ;  and  it  is  strongly  recom- 
mended to  take  off  the  honey  boxes  during  winter,  to  give  free  ventila- 
tion, and  prevent  frost  accumulating  in  the  hive. 

These  hives  are  also  well  adapted  to  set  in  a  building,  on  account  of 
the  peculiar  construction  of  the  entrance  for  the  bees,  and  the  alighting 
board,  which  forms  a  tube  or  spout  to  conduct  the  bees  thi'ough  the 
side  of  the  building,  or  out  at  »  window  of  a  dwelling,  without  admit- 
ting them  into  it,  to  interfere  Vv'ith  any  one.  Many  persons  are  using 
these  hives  in  their  dwellings  and  offices.  In  most  instances  they  are 
made  in  imitation  of  an  inclosed  waslistand,  and  can  be  opened  and  all 
tiie  operations  of  the  bees  observed  without  danger  from  them,  and  the 
Ijoney  obtained  in  tumblers  or  glass  jars,  or,  in  the  small  frames,  or 
boxes. 

We  also  give  a  brief  description  of  IMr.  Phelps's  "bee-feeder."  This 
is  a  very  simple  and  practical  arrangement  for  feeding  bees;  and  as  used 
in  these  hives  obviates  all  danger  of  other  bees  robbing  the  colonies,  or 
swarms,  while  being  fed — a  point  of  much  importance,  as  generally, 
there  is  great  danger  of  other  bees  being  attracted  to  the  hives  by  tliQ. 
scent  of  the  feed,  and,  as  it  is  the  weakest  and  smallest  families  that 
usually  require  feeding,  they  are  not  able  to  defend  themselves  against 
the  attacks  of  their  more  populous  neighbors;  and  consequently,  the 
robbers  will  enter  the  hives,  and  in  a  very  short  time,  carry  off  all  the 
honey  it  contains;  and  hence  more  injury  than  good  has,  in  most  cases, 
resulted  from  attempting  to  fe«d,  for  robbing  one  hive,  does  not  satisfy 
the  burglar  bees,  but  encourages  them  to  attack  the  next  feeble  colony, 


I 


THE    BEE. 


309 


and  not  unfrcquently  several  stocks  will  tlnis  he  destroyed  before  their 
depredations  can  be  stopped. 

This  feeder  is  so  constructed  and  arranged,  and  so  harmonizes  with 
the  construction  of  the  hives,  that  there  is  little  or  no  danger  to  be 
apprehended  from  other  bees  being-  attracted  to  the  hive  or  gainino- 
access  into  it  or  to  the  feed,  as  the  feeder  is  placed  in  the  case^  at  the 
side  of  the  brood-hive,  near  the  top,  with  a  small  communication  into 

^iie  feeder,  near  the  top  of  the  hive,  and  therefore  the  robbers  must 
pass  up  among  the  bees  and  combs  through  the  body  of  the  hive,  to 
gain  access  to  the  feed.  This  they  will  not  do,  if  the  instructions  are 
followed,  which  are  :  "  to  nearly  dose  the  entrance  tube   while  feeding, 

«»lcaving  a  space  of  only  half  an  inch  or  so,  that  only  one  or  two  bees 
can  enter  at  a  time."  In  this  condition  a  few  bees  are  able  to  defend 
themselves  against  all  intruders. 


Fig.  1. 


Fia.  2. 


FEEDER    AND   FLOAT. 


Fig  1  is  a  view  of  the  feed-box.  Fig  2,  the  float  which  is  made  to 
fit  in  it,  to  support  the  bees  and  prevent  their  becoming  mired  in  the 
feed  while  feeding. 

Fig.  1  consists  of  a  wooden  box  made  of  half-inch  boards,  and  is  ten 
or  twelve  inches  long,  six  inches  wide,  and  four  and  a  half  inches  deep, 
having  one  or  two  apertures  an  inch  or  so  in  diameter,  near  the  upper 
edge,  to  communicate  with  the  hive  while  feeding.  A  square  tin  pan, 
two  inches  deep,  is  made  to  fit  closely  in  the  box,  even  with  the  bottom, 
and  secured  there  with  small  tacks. 

The  float,  fig  2,  is  made  of  thin  slats  of  light  wood,  about  one  inch 
wide,  and  one  eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  tacked  on  to  a  cross  piece  at  the 
center,  leaving  a  space  between  the  slats  of  one  eighth  of  an  inch.  The 
under  side  of  the  float  is  lined  with  strips  of  cork  one  eighth  of  an  inch 
thick,  tacked  to  the  wood.  A  hole,  five-eighths  in  diameter,  is  made  in 
the  center  of  the  float,  and  a  tin  tube  five  inches  long  fitted  in  even  on 
the  under  side.  Another  thin  strip  two  inches  wide  is  fitted  across  the 
top  of  the  box,  with  a  hole  in  the  center  one  eighth  of  an  inch  laro^er 
than  the  tin  tube,  to  receive  it ;  and  on  each  side  of  this  top  strip,  a  pane 
of  glass  is  fitted  to  confine  the  bees,  and  afford  means  to  observe  their 
operations  while  feeding.  By  means  of  the  tin  tube,  the  float  can  be 
raised  when  the  feed  is  put  in  the  feeder,  and  the  feed  poured  through 
it  with  a  tunnel.  The  float  can  then  be  eased  down  on  the  feed,  and 
the  bees  come  on  to  it  and  feed  through  the  apertures  between  the  slats 
without  being  mixed  and  drowned  in  the  feed.  It  is  surprising  and  also 
amusing,  to  see  how  eager  they  are  to  remove  the  feed  and  store  it  in 

52 


310  DOMESTIC    ANIMALS. 

tbe  hive.  An  oiclinary  family  of  bees  will  frequently  remove  a  pint  of 
the  feed  in  an  hour,  and  usually  from  one  to  two  quarts  during  a  night; 
and  it  does  not  retard  them  in  the  least  from  gathering  from  the  lield 
on  the  following  day. 

The  feed  may  be  made  of  poor,  unmerchantable  honey,  or  honey  and 
sugar  mixcd^  and  prepared  with  water.  Southern  honey  also  answers 
a  very  good  pur|>ose  for  feeding,  merely  to  sustain  the  bees  through  the 
winter;  or,  when  cleansed  and  mixed  with  crushed  sugar,  makes  a  very 
good  article  for  the  table,  after  being  worked  over  and  stored  in  the 
combs  by  the  bees.  They  also  construct  combs  from  the  feed,  as  white 
and  beautiful  as  any  other.     For  feeding  receipts  see  ante^  page  285. 


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this  work  Lo  meet  that  want. 

PUBLISHED  BY  THE  AUBURN  PUBLISHING  COMPANY,  AUBURN,  N.  Y. 
SOLD  ONLY  TO  SUBSCRIBERS:  is  not  therefore  for  sale  in  any  Bookstore,  and  can  be 
had  only  of  our  Canvassing  Agents.     And  all  who  desire  to  engage  in  solicitinir  subscriptions  for 
the  above  valuable  work,  will  find  immediate  and  profitable  employment  by  addressing 

E.  G.  JSTOl^KE,  Publishing  Agrent, 

AUBURN,  N.  Y. 


Bold  oxily  to  Subscribors.— Not  for  Sala  in  Book  Stores —No  Library  is  complete  with- 
out it.— It  should  be  in  evary  Family. 


Geography  and  Biography  of  all  Nations, 

COMPRISING,    IN    A   SINGLE   WORK, 

THE  HISTORY  OF  ALL  NATIOXS-TIIE  GEOGR.VPIIY  OF  ALL  COUNTRIES,  A^D 
THE  BIOGRAPHIES  OF  THE  PROMINENT  MEN  Ot^  ALL  TIME. 

700  Engravings  Illustrate  its  History —200  Portraits  its  Biography —and 
70  xllaps  its  Geography. 

1235  DOUBLE-COLUMN  IMPERIAL  OCTAVO  PAGES,  COSTING  OVER  $11,000, 
AND    CONTAINING   AS    ML; Oil   MATTER  AS 

TWEJVTY    12:?IO.    VOa.ljx7IE§    OF    OMOI.^ARY    SIZE! 

THE  WORK  EXTENDS  PROil  THE  EARLIEST  PERIOD  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME : 

And  in  it  tlie  History  of  every  Nation,  Ancient  and  Modern,  is  separately  given. 

By  S.  G.  CrOOI>KI€il5  the  Napoleoa  of  the  Pen, 

Author  of '' Recollections  of  a  Lifetime,''  '•'■Peter  Farley's  Tales,  tfec,  cfec. 

A  New  Revised  Edition,  including  the  Prominent  Events  of  the  Current 

Year. 


It  is  believed  that  a  ttniversal  history,  suitable  in  form,  extent  and  arranjement,  to  the 
wants  of  the  mass  of  American  readers  has  never  before  been  presented  to  the  public.  For  this 
reason,  and  in  compliance  with  numerous  sugsestions  from  those  entitled  to  resi)ect,  the  author 
has  undertaken  the  formidable  task  of  supi)lyinir  one  of  a  popular  character,  and  for  general  use. 

The  work  presents  a  separate  and  distinct  history,  and  also  exhibits  the  present  state  of  every 
Nation  Ancient  and  Modern,  including  the  recent  revolutions  in  Europe,  and  for  the  iinr]>ose 
of  showing  how  nations  have  acted  upon  or  iuiluence<l  the  destinies  of  one  another.  Gknkkal 
Views  are* given,  at  suitable  peri<tds,  presentins  the  great  movement  of  mankind  as  one  family, 
in  its  onward  march  from  the  past  to  the  preMiit,  combining  A  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  HISTORY 
AND  UNIVERSAL  GAZETTEER  OF  OLOGRAPH  V  AND  BIOGRAPHY  With  a  view 
to  render  it  more  valuable,  especially  in  the  Family  Library,  an  ample  Chronological  Table  is 
tiven,  with  a  full  Index — containing  upwards  of /our  thous(tnd  Historical  and  Geogi-aphical 
Names;  thus  rendering  it  available,  for  Daily  and  Fam.liar  Use,  as  a  Book  of  Refer- 

Th'is  work,  by  Mr.  GooDKicii.  must  be  very  acceptable  to  the  American  public  It  is  the 
result  of  years  of  toil  and  labor,  assisted  in  his"  researches  by  several  scholars  of  known  ability. 
It  has  been  prepared  at  a  great  expense  by  the  proprietors.  No  pains  have  been  spared  in  the 
execution  of  the 

ILLUSTRATIOIS^S   AND  MAPS, 

which  were  executed  expressly  for  the  work.  In  leed  all  the  other  historical  writings  of  Mr. 
Goodrich  sink  into  insigniticaiice  when  compared  with  this,  the  result  of  his  riper  ami  m.aturer 
years.  It  is  admitted  that  ONE  HUNDRED  DOLLARS  could  not  purchase  the  .same  matter 
in  any  other  shape;  and  the  publishers  confidently  expect,  in  consideration  of  the  great  literary 
value  of  the  work,  the  large  sum  expended  in  preparing  it  for  the  press,  and  the 

EXCEEDINGLY   MODERxVTE    PRICE   AT    WHICH   IT   IS   OFFERED. 
that  it  will  be  favorably  rpceived  by  every  lover  of  good  books.     Many  of  our  first  scholars, 
divines  and  centlemen  who  have  examined  the  work,  have  given  it  their  UNQUALIFIED 
APPROBATION. 

nVIFOROT    KETAIL.    PRICES: 
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Full  Gilt  Sides,  and  Gilt  Edges, lu  00 

PUBLISHED  BY  THE  AUBURN  PUBLISHING  COMPANY,  AUBURN,  N.  Y. 
1^  Can\assing  Agents  wanted  for  the  above. 

Addr.'ss  E.  G.  STORRE,  Publishing  Agent, 

AUBUllX.  N.  Y. 


-A 


WeDster  harot^  yorsry  of  Vetennaiy  U^sdsiM 
Cummlngs  Sch^-'  --'  "eterinary  MMkJlMal 
Tufts  Universit) 
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